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20201215 cultexam 3

2021-04-14T09:50:39Z

Yi Zichu: /* 4.Giant pandas in Chinese culture */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China
(中国古代四大才女)

===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===

Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)

About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)

After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)

Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.

===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.

With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).

In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.

The following is the original poem:

白头吟

皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。

闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。

今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;

躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。

愿得一心人，白头不相离。

竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。

男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？

The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:

Bai Tou Yin

Our love like snow on mountains proud,

Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.

I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;

I come to say goodbye to you.

We drink a cup of wine today;

Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.

By royal moat we’ll walk and go,

Like waters which east or west flow.

Why should I fell so sad and drear,

And like a bride shed tear on tear?

If I’d wed one with single heart,

Even white-haired, we would not part.

Long,long may be your fishing lines,

You cannot catch fishtail while shines.

If your love were constant and true,

Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)

===Li Qingzhao 李清照===
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）

As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.

===Ban Zhao 班昭===
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).

Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).

In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.

===Terms and Expressions===
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬

Cai Yong 蔡邕

Fan Ye 范晔

''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》

''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》

''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》

''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》

''five-character verse'' 五言体

Sao style 骚体

autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗

Li Qingzhao 李清照

''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》

''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》

''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》

Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君

''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》

''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》

''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》

''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》

''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》

===References===
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009

[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016

[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17

[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

===Questions===
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?

2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?

3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?

4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?

5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?

6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?

7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?

===Answers===
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.

2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .

3. Sima Xiangru.

4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.

5. Li Qigzhao.

6. Ban Zhao.

7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.

==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==

Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===

====1.Pigeon post====
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.

In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".

The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）

Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)

====2.Paper Letters====

The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.

Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.

With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）

====3.E-mails====

E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).

E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.

However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.

The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.

According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"

The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.

It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）

===References===
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin

2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin

3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin

4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.

===Terms and Expressions===

条件反射conditioned reflex

成吉思汗 Genghis Khan

信鸽驿站pigeon post station

战鸽war pigeon

分隔符separator

服务器域名domain name

互联网周刊Internet Week

===Questions===

1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?

2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?

3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?

4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?

5.When did the world's first emails appear?

6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”

===Answers===

1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.

2.Ravens.

3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field,
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.

4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.

5.October 1969

6.跨越长城，连接世界

==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI英语口译==

Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)

Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===References===
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017

Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019

===Terms and Expressions===

Taoism 道教

cultural revolution 文化大革命

plank 厚木板

Hanging Monastery 悬空寺

Zen 禅宗

Shaolin Temple 少林寺

Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝

practitioners of martial arts 习武之人

monastery 寺庙

===Questions===

1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？

2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?

3. What is the largest temple in southern China?

4. What are the features of Mount Hua?

5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?

6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?

===Answers===

1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.

2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫

四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白

泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易

3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).

4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.

5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.

6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.

--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==

===Ancient Chinese Education===

====History====
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,319)

From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)

In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 323)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

====Confucian Educational Theory====

The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.(Zhu Hanming, 2010,320)

In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）

Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.
Learning and Thinking are equally important.
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.
Inspiration and Guidance.
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius)

Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.

The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

====Chinese Imperial Examination====

The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）

The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）

However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate)

In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育

*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子

*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度

*Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.

*Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.

*Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

*Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.

https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius

https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm

https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期

Loyalty 忠

Filial Piety 孝

Benevolence 仁

Righteousness 义

poetry and rites 诗礼

Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育

Meng Guan 蒙馆

Zu Xue 族学

archery 射

chariot- riding 御

calligraphy 书

computation 数

state bureaucracy 政府机构

The Three Character Classic 《三字经》

The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》

The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》

Four Books 四书

Shuyuan 书院

Guozijian 国子监

Confucian Five Classics 五经

Six Arts 六艺

Jinshi 进士

Zhuangyuan 状元

Bangyan 榜眼

Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?

2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?

3.What became permanently linked right into present time?

4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?

What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?

6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?

7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?

8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.

2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.

3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.

4.Noblemen’s children

5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.

6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized.

7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.

8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==

===Chinese Dining Etiquette===

China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)

[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]

====Attendance====

As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====

Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :

1. the imperial court

2. local authorities

3. trade associations and

4. farmers and workers

In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to:

1. master of the banquet

2. honored guest(s)

3. other guests.

The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''A. Round Table'''

If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''B. Square Table'''

In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''C. In Grand Banquet'''

In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)

[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]

====Chinese Table Manners====

Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):

'''A. Considering Others'''

1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''

Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

'''C. Elegance'''

1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====

1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]

===References===
1. Edward L. Davis. (2005). ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture''. Taylor & Francis e-Library,

2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing. (1993). ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press.

3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M. (2005). ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc.

4. Sun Xiaoyu. (2010). ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld.

5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. (2020). How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm.

6. Ruru Zhou. (2018). Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm.

7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.

--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 22:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

seat of honor 上座/尊位

Eight Immortals table 八仙桌

burrow through the food 乱翻食物

“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏

side plate 小菜碟

napkin 餐巾纸

handkerchief 手帕

phlegm 痰

windpipe 气管

joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香

ancestor altar 祖先祭坛

skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子

serving chopsticks 公筷

===Questions===

1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?

2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?

3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？

4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?

5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?

6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?

===Answers===

1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).

2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.

3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.

4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.

5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.

6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.

==Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China==
by Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608 MTI 英语笔译

===A.Midea===

Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)

Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea)

To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）

Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes.

In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.

Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.

Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.

On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.

In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances.

Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.

In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss.

Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.

===B.Haier===

Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)

Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)

Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".

Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."

From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.

In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales.

Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)

During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.

Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.

===C.Gree===

Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)

Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)

In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.

Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".

On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally.

On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.

In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out.

Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.

Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.

===Terms and Expressions===

HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德

Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长

leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道

air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫

Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼

3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网

Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一

chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司

Candy （意大利）卡迪集团

TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司

Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所

Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工

Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒

Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机

HVAC 暖通空调

Shunde （广东）顺德

Smart supply chain 智能供应链

Intensive Growth 内生式增长

leverage ratio 杠杆率

Second Runway 第二跑道

air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机

Tmall 天猫

Qingdao （山东）青岛

Shock Fish 休克鱼

3Q report 三季报

IoT 物联网

Experience cloud 体验云

Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一

chain group 链群

Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司

Candy （意大利）卡迪集团

TOSOT 大松电器公司

Jinghong 晶弘电器公司

Gree Electric 格力电工

Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所

Created in China 中国创造

General Electric Company 格力电工

Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司

COVID-19 新型冠状病毒

Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===

1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?

2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?

3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?

4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?

5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?

6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?

7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?

8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.

9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?

10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?

11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?

12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?

===Answers===

1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".

2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.

3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.

4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.

5.White home appliances.

6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.

7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.

8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.

Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.

9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks.

10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.

(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.

(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.

11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.

12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.

===References===

1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力

2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔

3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的

4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.

5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.

6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.

7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/

8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/

9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/

==National Flag of the People’s Republic of China==
by Wang Xuan 王轩 202070080609 MTI 英语笔译

===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.

===B Establishment process===

===1. Solicit comments from the public===

On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.

===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===

On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.

===3. Pass a resolution===

The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution.

Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.

===C Symbolism of the flag===
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.

=== Terms and expressions ===

五星红旗 five-star red flag

中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)

全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)

《人民日报》 People's Daily

《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily

《新华日报》 xinhua Daily

=== Questions ===

1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?

2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?

3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?

4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?

5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?

=== Answers ===

1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.

2. On September 27, 1949

3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution.

4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party.

5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.

=== References ===

[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.

[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.

[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.

[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.

[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.

[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.

[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

==China's Four New Inventions - Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==

Most people know about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented Chinese ancient wisdom and what an outstanding history China had. Today, China still holds this place and influence in technology and inventions. In May, 2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: High Speed Railway, QR code payment, bike sharing and online shopping.

Although these new inventions were not first invented by China, it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience to people's lives. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of humanity. World's future will be brighter and more prosperous due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.

===A. High-speed railway ===

High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]

====Features====

1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.

2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.

3. The rails use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorter distances.

4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs.

5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it needs to be of high safety. (科普中国 2020)

====Merits====

1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as busses, boats or airplanes, high speed trains have more seats.

2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.

3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.

4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.

5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment.

6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)

'''Terms and Expressions'''

High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]

the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪

integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.

seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道

a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔

viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组

shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料

'''Questions'''

1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?

2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?

3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?

4. What are the features of high speed railway?

5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?

6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?

'''Answers'''

1. The first high speed railway come from Japan

2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.

3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.

4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.

5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.

6. High-speed rails.

===B. QR code payment===

The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.

====Background====

The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)

====Characteristics====

At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]

1. Mature technology
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.
2. Easy to use
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.
3. Convenient payment
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.
4. Lower cost
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）

'''Terms and Expressions'''

QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码

Finland芬兰 Telecom电信

jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机

Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场

'''Questions'''

1. What advanced the birth of QR code?

2. When did the QR code become popular in China?

3. Why does QR code cost lower?

4. When was the QR code invented?

'''Answers'''

1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.

2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.

3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.

4. QR code invented in 1997.

===C. Shared bikes===

As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas.

====Function and Using Steps ====

By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)

1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]

2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.

3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.

====Development====

China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018)

'''Terms and Expressions'''

Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统

free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区

last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济

the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车

'''Questions'''

1. Which country invented the shared bike?

2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?

3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?

4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?

'''Answers'''

1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.

2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation

3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced

4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.

===D. Online shopping===

Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called video text to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world.

====Definition====

Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]

====Development====

As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.

With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.

With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）

'''Terms and Expressions'''

retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司

direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款

secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配

'''Questions'''

1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?

2. How could people pay online?

3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?

'''Answers'''

1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?

2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.

3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.

===References===

中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.

Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.

Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.

Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.

Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.

Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).

Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.

Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).

东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会

==Four Domestic Mobile Phones==
by Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610

===A.Huawei===

Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)

Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)

Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.

"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.

[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]

Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)

Since the top executive (the daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)

For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.

===Terms and Expression===

Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术

optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络

intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920

AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库

information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准

===Questions:===

1.When is Huawei founded?

2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate?

3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?

4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?

5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?

6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?

7.What are the company’s common values?

8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?

9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？

10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?

===Answers:===

1. It is founded in 1987.

2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions

3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.

4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.

5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.

6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on.

7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.

8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran.

②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.

9. The Mate 30.

10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.

===References===

Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.

Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020

===B. Xiaomi===

Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)

With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)

[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]

Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.

“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)

Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead.

“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.

===Terms and Expression===

IoT（Internet of Things）物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器

Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝

VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机

electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器

===Questions:===

1.When is Xiaomi founded?

2.What is the core of this company？

3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？

4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？

5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？

6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？

7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？

8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？

9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？

===Answers===

1. It is founded in April 2010.

2. The IoT platform.

3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.

4. Xiaomi Vela.

5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".

6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.

7. The low-margin strategy.

8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.

9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.

===References===

Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.

Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.

Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.

===C. VIVO & OPPO===

Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.

Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.

At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)

With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)

===Terms and Expression===

OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充

BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁

accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器

===Questions:===

1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？

2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？

3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？

4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？

5.Please give a example of products from each brands.

6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？

7.What’s the mission of VIVO？

8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？

9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.

2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.

3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too.

4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.

5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.

6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration.

7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.

8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).

9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.

===References===

Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.

vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.

OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.

==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==

===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===

The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)

China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)

===B.Hunan dialect===

Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)

The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)

===C. Contonese===

Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)

As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)

Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)

Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)

===Question===

1.How many local dialects in China?

2.What are they?

3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect.
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

===Answers===
1.9

2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua

3.The Chu language

===References===

* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.

* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.

* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)==
by Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译

===A. Brief Introduction===

March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.

On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.

On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.

The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.

===B. Creation Background===

March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times.

Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.

Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.

After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.

===C. Song Appreciation===

The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.

The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.

According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.

March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.

===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===

起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！

把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！

中华民族到了最危险的时候，

每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。

起来！起来！起来！

我们万众一心，

冒着敌人的炮火,

前进！

冒着敌人的炮火，

前进！

前进！前进、进！

Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!

Let’s stand up and fight for

Liberty and true democracy.

All our world is facing

The chains of the tyrants.

Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:

Arise! Arise! Arise!

With the torch of freedom,

March on!

With the torch of freedom,

March on!

March on! March on, and on!

===Terms and Expressions===

March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲

Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女

EMI 百代唱片

National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会

National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委

===Questions===
‭
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?

2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?

3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?

4.When was the final draft completed?

5.How did the name of this song come from?

===Answers===
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er.

2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times.

3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017.

4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft.

5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.

===References===
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)

《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）

百度百科.义勇军进行曲

--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Zheng He's Voyages==
by Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译

From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)

====Zheng He====
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]]

====Reasons for the voyages====
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]
====The seven expeditions====
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)

Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]

====Terms and Expressions====
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）

Java 爪哇

Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）

Champe 占城（印度支那古国）

Hormuz 霍尔木兹

The Persian Gulf 波斯湾

Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）

Mecca 麦加（穆斯林圣地）

==== Questions====
1.What was Zheng He like?

2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?

3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?

4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?

5.The last trip was sented by?

===Answers===
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.

2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.

3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.

4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.

5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.
===References===
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.

Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.

Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.

[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]

[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]

[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 MTI 英语口译==

===China's Four Great Classical Novels===

The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)

====Water Margin====

''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)

With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)

====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====

''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)

''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)

====Journey to the West====

''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)

The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)

====Dream of the Red Chamber====

''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)

''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)

===Terms and Expressions===

农民起义 peasant uprising

孙悟空 Monkey King

大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven

康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age

天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom

===Questions===

1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?

2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?

3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?

4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?

4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?

===Answers===

1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.

2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.

3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.

4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.

4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.

===References===

*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University

*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power

*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters

*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press

*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House

*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press

*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University

*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University

--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==

Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.

1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl

2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall

3. The Story of the White Snake

4. Butterfly Lovers

====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====

It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)

With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)

Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)

====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====

During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)

Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)

====The Story of the White Snake====

Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.

After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）

But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)

====Butterfly Lovers====

During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)

Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)

But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)

Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.

===Terms and Expressions===

Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女

Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城

Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台

the Queen Mother 王母娘娘

Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》

The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》

===Questions===

1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?

2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?

3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?

4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?

5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?

===Answers===

1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.

2.Realgar wine

3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.

4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.

5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.

===References===

Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.

Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.

Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.

Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.

Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.

Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.

Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.

Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.

--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==
===Four Great Pavilions===
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====

Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

====Tao Ran Pavilion====

The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

====Ai Wan Pavilion====

The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)

After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

====Hu Xin Pavilion====

Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

===Terms and Expressions===

The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭

Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景

Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭

glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦

Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭

Mountain Journey 《山行》

Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭

County 《县志》

===Questions===

1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？

2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?

3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?

4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?

5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?

===Answers===
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.

2. After the Ming Dynasty.

3. Tao Ran Pavilion.

4. Ai Wan Pavilion.

5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.

===References===
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.

*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.

*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.

*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw

*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html

*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html

--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==

===Three Great Towers in China===

1. Yellow Crane Tower

2. Yueyang Tower

3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng

Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years.

====Yellow Crane Tower====

The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）

During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)

Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]

====Yueyang Tower====

Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.

In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)

The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）

Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]

====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====

Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）

What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)

For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.

The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)

[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]

====Terms and Expressions====

Watchtower n. 瞭望塔

The Three King Periods 三国时期

Yangtze River 长江

Upturned eave 飞檐

4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区

State Council of China 中国国务院

Nostalgia n. 怀旧

Storey n. 层

Glazed tile 琉璃瓦

====Questions====

1. What are the three great towers in China?

2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning?

3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying?

4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?

5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?

====Answers====

1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.

2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function.

3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down.

4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower.

5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.

====References====

Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.

Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).

Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).

Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.

Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.

--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容, 202070080616, MTI 英语笔译==

<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center>

===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===

===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===

Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)

''Feng Shui'' (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where ''Yin'' (阴) and ''Yang'' (阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)

The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and "a white tiger" on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is "the green dragon", and a stone mountain on the right is "the white tiger". On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)

During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing's status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)

The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some important military towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)

====Terms and Expressions====

''Feng Shui'' theory 风水学

Yang House 阳宅

Yin House 阴宅

The main mountain 主山

Xuanwu Lake玄武湖

man-made canal 人工运河

Six Dynasties 六朝

Qinhuai River 秦淮河

the first line of defense 第一防线

trench 天堑

====Questions====

1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing stands out?

2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?

3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?

4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?

5. What were Nanjing's natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?

====Answers====

1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.

2.Yangzhou.

3.As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.

4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench.

5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.

===B. Nature and Humanities===

The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural sceneries, but also many historical monuments; there are ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interests listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainments are full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area and so on. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people. Moreover, people live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

====Terms and Expressions====

Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节

Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节

Dragon Boat Festival 端午节

Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节

Chongyang Festival 重阳节

Laba Festival porridge 腊八节

God of Wealth 财神

dragon lantern dance 舞龙灯

Fangshan drum 方山大鼓

the Huatai Festival 花台会

black rice 乌饭

historical interests 名胜古迹

====Questions====

1.How to describe Nanjing?

2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?

3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?

4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?

5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?

====Answer====

1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".

2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units.

3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.

4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.

5.Fangshan drum.

===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===

The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]

During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

====Terms and Expressions====

the first month in the lunar calendar 正月

glutinous rice balls 汤圆

satin silk fabrics 楮练纱帛

Yarn lanterns 纱灯

lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜

the Confucius Temple 夫子庙

====Questions====

1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?

2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?

3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?

4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?

5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?

6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?

7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?

====Answers====

1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.

2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.

3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.

4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.

5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people.

6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses.

7.a lantern-shaped in horse.

===References===

[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.

[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.

[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.

[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/

==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧英语口译 202070080646==

Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）

===Benevolence (Ren)===
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).

===Righteousness (Yi)===
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).

===Propriety (Li)===
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).

===Wisdom (Zhi)===
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).

===Fidelity (Xin)===
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4).

Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).

===Expressions and Terms===
Five Constant Virtues 五常

benevolence 仁

righteousness 义

propriety 礼

wisdom 智

fidelity 信

moral code 道德准则

filial piety 孝道

===Questions===
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?

2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?

3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?

4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?

5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?

===Answers===
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.

2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.

3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.

4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .

5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.

===Reference===

Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.

Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛

Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.

Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.

Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==
===Cheongsam===

Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)

====Brief Introduction====

Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).

In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)

====The History of Cheongsam====

Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)

After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)

Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).

In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)

In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)

The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)

====The Significance of Cheongsam====

Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)

Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)

In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)

Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)

===References===

*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)

===Terms and Expressions===

*Cheongsam 旗袍
*the quintessence of China 国粹
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产
*Manchu 满族
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍
*sleeveless 无袖
*fur trim 毛皮饰边
*Sequins 亮片
*fabric printing 织物印花
*embroidery 刺绣
*topless 袒胸
*nude back 裸背
*low collar 低领
*high slit 高开叉

===Questions===

1.When did the cheongsam originate from?

2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China?

3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country?

4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?

5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?

6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?

===Answers===

1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.

2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains.

3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.

4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower.

5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.

6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠 202070080647 MTI英语口译==

====1.1 Introduction ====

Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, 1)

====1.2 History and Technology====

The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)

Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014)
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.

The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)

They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)

====1.3 Uses====

Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)

Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)

====1.4 Spread====

After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)

Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated:   “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)

By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017)

In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.

====1.5 Expressions and Terms====

Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》

the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国

Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇

====1.6 Questions====

1. When did folding screens first appear?

2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?

3. What functions do screens serve?

4. When did they spread to Europe?

5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?

===1.7 Answers===

1. Literary references date as far back as the Zhou dynasty (fourth to third century BC).

2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen, as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.

3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies.

4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century.

5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.

===1.8 References===

Handler, Sarah (2007). ''Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture''. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277.

Delay, Claude (1983). ''Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard''. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.

Milica Sterjova. ''A Brief history of folding screens''. https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html 2017

Emmaantiques. ''Asian Furniture Online''. https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ 2014

Dianne Lee van der Reyden, ''THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS'', https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf

David Leopold. ''Unfolding the Screen''. https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/ 2008

Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). ''Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques''. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146

Cooper, Dan (1999). ''Folding Grandeur. Old House Interiors''. 5 (1): 30–36.

--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:40, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''Panda'''==
by Yi Zichu 义子楚英语笔译 202070080618--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

===1.The origin of giant pandas===
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)

In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)

The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\

====2.Appearance features of giant pandas====
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

====3.The diet features of giant pandas====
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)

They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)

====4.Giant pandas in Chinese culture====
The appearance of giant pandas coincides with the origin of Chinese traditional culture. Tong Changxin, a painter who is good at color ink painting of giant pandas, made a painting in which two young giant pandas lie together in a group, forming a picture of you and me, embracing and relying on each other. It is very similar to the Taiji picture that represents the "first picture under heaven" of Chinese traditional culture. The distribution of black and white body color of giant pandas is full of the beauty of balance and symmetry. The black mouth and nose corresponds to the white tail, the black ears correspond to the white head parts on both sides of the front and back, and the black circles under the eyes correspond to the white cheeks. Compared visually, black and white occupy almost the same area in appearance, and the two are distinct, opposite and unified, contradictory and harmonious, and none of the colors go to extremes. It implies the philosophical truth of interdependence and inclusion between things, which is the perfect inspiration of the quintessence of thought in the origin of Chinese traditional culture.（Zhang Zhizhong,2018)

Once the giant panda has identified the scope of its territory, it will live in its own territory and will not infringe upon the territory of other giant pandas. Giant pandas still retain the characteristics of carnivores with short digestive tract, no cecum, sharp claws and tusks, strong body strength, strong bite force, first-class running and tree climbing speed, and no natural enemies in adulthood. It can be said that if you want to dominate the world, there is almost no difficulty. However, giant pandas always uphold the warm temperament, good moral character,and adhere to their niche in nature, harmony with many species, quite a family demeanor. It is consistent with the quality of "virtuous goods" of the Chinese people that "harmony is the most precious" and "harmony is not disputed".(Zhang Zhizhong,2018)

=====Terms and expressions====
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫

Pleistocene 更新世

rhizomys 竹鼠

cellulose 纤维素

burgeons 嫩枝

====Questions====
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?

2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?

3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?

4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?

===Answers===
1.Ailuaractos

2.It is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow

3.No,they like humid enviornment.

4.They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots

===References===
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.

[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.

[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.

[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.

[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.

==Legalism==
by You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译

Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).

====1.Representative figures====

Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52).

Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)

====2.Values====

Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).

First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).

Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).

Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).

In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).

====3.Works====

Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).

It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).

====References====

*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.

====Terms and Expressions====

1.Legalism法家

2.the way of emperor帝道

3.the way of king王道

4.the overbearing way 霸道

5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害

6.self-contradiction自相矛盾

7.wait for windfalls守株待兔

8.safety in numbers滥竽充数

9.sense comes with age老马识途

====Questions====

1.When did legalism become mature?

2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?

3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?

4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?

5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?

6.What are the classical works of legalism?

7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?

===Answers===

1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.

2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.

3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.

4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing.

5.Yes.

6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.

7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

20201215 cultexam 3

2021-04-14T09:45:07Z

Yi Zichu: /* 3.The diet features of giant pandas */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Historical Figures, The Four Talented Women of Ancient China- Shi Haiyao 石海瑶 202070080605 英语笔译==
The Four Talented Women of Ancient China
(中国古代四大才女)

===Cai Wenji 蔡文姬===

Cai Wenji, also known as Cai Yan, was a female writer in the Eastern Han Dynasty. As the daughter of the great writer Cai Yong, Cai Wenji had received good education since childhood and got high attainments in terms of calligraphy, music and literature. Although her works are not in plenty, she is recognized as a talented woman in the late Eastern Han Dynasty.Her father, Cai Yong, was a master of calligraphy, and wenji passed it on from her father. Unfortunately, only one piece of calligraphy written by Wenji has been kept so far, and it only has 14 characters, which is a great loss in the history of Chinese calligraphy.(Wu Chanshen,2011,45)

About Wenji’s gift in Guqin, Fan Ye described her in ''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' as "knowledgeable, talented , and excellent in melody." ''The Three Character Classic'' directly mentioned: "Cai Wenji is adept in distinguishing the sound of different qin." It is said that ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' was written by her. This famous Chinese guqin song is one of the ten famous ancient Chinese songs. " ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' " includes 18 chapters and 1,297 words in total, reflecting the theme of "Wenji returns to Han".''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' tells the story of Cai Wenji's sufferings in her whole life in a touching tone. It reflects the deep disaster brought by the war, and expresses the strong feeling of missing the motherland and the countryside and of the unbearable family separation. (Wu Chanshen,2011,48)

After Cai Wenji returned to the Han Dynasty, she wrote two ''Indignant Poems'', one of which was five-character verse and another was Sao Style. The poem of five-character verse, which focuses on "sadness and disharmony", is a narrative poem based on feelings and facts, it is the first autobiographical narrative poem in the history of Chinese poetry. ''Indignant Poems'' with Sao style emphasizes on expressing emotions, descriptions of diversified natural landscapes express Wenji's sadness of leaving her hometown.In these depiction of scenery and people, Wenji has enlarged the difference between them and her hometown, so as to describe her grief and anger.(Wu Chanshen,2011,84)

Her life, immersed in the chaotic life, suffering all the trick of fates. She never gave in, even when the chaos caused by war crushed her dignity and pride. Her life force like a weed , and it is this tenacity that makes her become a miracle in troubled times.

===Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君===
Zhuo Wenjun was born beautiful, gifted and clever as well as adept at poetry and lyrics. The talented but poor Sima Xiangru and Zhuo Wenjun fell in love at first sight. Wenjun broke through the secular concept, regardless of family's obstruction, leaving behind the life of luxury and pursuing love resolutely.

With the support of Zhuo Wenjun, Sima Xiangru was able to make his way to the top, but he shifted his love to another person and had the intention of taking a concubine.In ancient China,a husband can legally marry many wife.Instead of being submissive like a cowardly woman, or being hurt and losing her mind, she wrote poetry to warn her husband and to redeem his love. Her Poem of ''Discontent and Letter of Farewell'' persuaded her husband to change his mind. After reading, her husband retrieved his original intention. Zhuo Wenjun's bold pursuit of love was a deviant act in feudal society(Lin Jing,2016:41).

In addition, Zhuo Wenjun's experience set an example of free love for later generations. Her poem of ''Bai Tou Yin'' is called a classic of love poetry.

The following is the original poem:

白头吟

皑如山上雪, 皎如云间月。

闻君有两意, 故来相决绝。

今日斗酒会, 明旦沟水头;

躞蹀御沟上, 沟水东西流。

愿得一心人，白头不相离。

竹竿何袅袅，鱼尾何簁簁。

男儿重意气，何用钱刀为？

The translated version by Xu Yuanchong is as follows:

Bai Tou Yin

Our love like snow on mountains proud,

Was bright like the moonmid the cloud.

I’m told you’ll leave the old for new;

I come to say goodbye to you.

We drink a cup of wine today;

Tomorrow we’ll go each our way.

By royal moat we’ll walk and go,

Like waters which east or west flow.

Why should I fell so sad and drear,

And like a bride shed tear on tear?

If I’d wed one with single heart,

Even white-haired, we would not part.

Long,long may be your fishing lines,

You cannot catch fishtail while shines.

If your love were constant and true,

Why so much money to go through? (Xu Yuanchong,2012:17)

===Li Qingzhao 李清照===
Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi An Jushi, was a female lyricist in Song dynasty as well as representative of graceful and restrained song lyrics. She was considered "the first talented woman through the ages". Her father, Li Gefei collected numerous books, which laid her literary foundation when she was young. After marrying, she and her husband, Zhao Mingcheng, devoted to collecting and arranging calligraphy, painting, gold and stones. When the Jin soldiers entered the Central Plains, she fled to the south with loneliness. In the early part of his works, she mostly wrote about his leisurely life, but in the later part, she mostly lamented his life and became sentimental. ''Yi An Jushi Anthology'' and ''Yi An Lyrics'' have been idle, thus, later people compile her text into ''Shuyu Lyrics''. Her lyrics emphasize the concordance, advocating elegance, opposed to the method of making words for poetry. Her poem, not many of which have survived, is partly sentimental, and partly generous, but different from the style of its lyrics.(Song Shidao,2011,18）

As a female writer in the history of ancient Chinese literature, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought embodied in his works has positive social significance. From the historical perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thought represents the ancient Chinese women's pursuit of equality between men and women, concern for state affairs and love for the motherland, so that later generations can get to know the emotional world of ancient Chinese women. From a realistic perspective, Li Qingzhao's patriotic thoughts can make people feel the important role of women in national unity and social progress.

===Ban Zhao 班昭===
Ban Zhao is a brilliant woman of great learning and virtue,she is a historian, a writer and a politician.Ban Zhao's achievements are highlighted in her research in history, continuing to complete the compilation of the Book of Han after the death of his father, Ban Biao, and his brother, Ban Gu.''The Book of Han'' is a historical masterpiece,enjoying a high reputation of the first chronicle of China's dynastic history(Jin Lulu,2009:122).

Ban Zhao came from a Confucian family, and his father, Ban Biao, was a well-known scholar at that time. Influenced by his father, Ban Zhao was very knowledgeable and talented.At the age of fourteen, Ban Zhao married Cao Shishu. After her husband died in his early years, Ban Zhaog obeyed the rules of women, behaved in with etiquette, and had very good conduct. Compared with Zhuo Wenjun, Ban Zhao's view of love is full of bondage without personal freedom(Jin Lulu,2009:105).

In her later years, Ban Zhao suffered from illness. When her daughters were just about to get married, Ban Zhao was worried that they would humiliate the clansman if they did not know women's etiquette. so she composed seven chapters of ''The Commandments for Women'' in her spare time,which,then, spread widely among the people.The concepts advocated by Ban Zhao in the book became the code of conduct for ancient Chinese women.This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.

===Terms and Expressions===
Cai Wenj 蔡文姬

Cai Yong 蔡邕

Fan Ye 范晔

''The History of the Later Han Dynasty'' 《后汉书》

''Three Character Classic'' 《三字经》

''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' 《胡笳十八拍》

''Indignant Poems'' 《悲愤诗》

''five-character verse'' 五言体

Sao style 骚体

autobiographical narrative poem 自传体长篇叙事诗

Li Qingzhao 李清照

''Yi An Jushi Anthology''《易安居士文集》

''Yi An Lyrics''《易安词》

''Shuyu Lyrics''《漱玉词》

Zhuo Wenjun 卓文君

''Poem of Discontent''《怨郎诗》

''Letter of Farewell''《诀别书》

''Bai Tou Yin'' 《白头吟》

''The Book of Han'' 《汉书》

''The Commandments for Women''《女诫》

===References===
[1]金璐璐.班昭及其著述研究[D].首都师范大学.2009

[2]林菁.最是人间留不住[M].北京：民主与建设出版社,2016

[3]宋师道.四大才女之李清照传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

[4]武昌盛.四大才女之蔡文姬传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

[5]许渊冲.许渊冲经典英译汉魏六朝诗[M].北京：海豚出版社,2017:17

[6]赵明哲.四大才女之卓文君传[M].北京：中国华侨出版社,2011

===Questions===
1. Who are the four talented women of ancient China?

2. Do you know any representative works written by Cai Wenji?

3. Who is Zhuo Wenjun's husband?

4. What did ZhuoWenjun do to save her marriage?

5. Who is considered "the first talented woman through the ages"?

6. Who is the writer of ''The Commandments for Women''?

7. What are the influences about ''The Commandments for Women''?

===Answers===
1. They are Cai Wenji, Zhuo Wenjun, Li Qingzhao and BanZhao.

2. ''Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute Song'' and ''Indignant Poems'' .

3. Sima Xiangru.

4. She wrote ''Poem of Discontent'' and ''Letter of Farewell'' to save her marriage.

5. Li Qigzhao.

6. Ban Zhao.

7. This book confined women's thoughts and freedoms, but it also served as a guide for women's behavior at the time.

==Habits, Ways of Contacting - Si Yu 司妤 Student No.202070080606 MTI笔译==

Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)

===Ancient and Contemporary Ways of Contacting===

====1.Pigeon post====
Pigeon post is a method of communication among ancient people, where letters are tied to the feet of pigeons and delivered to the person who wants to deliver them. In movies, we see people in western countries using crows to deliver letters, but in China, crows are seen as an inauspicious symbol, so people used to use pigeons to deliver letters. Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field, and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.

In order to get the ideal pigeon, besides careful selection of good breed and scientific feeding management, the most important thing is training. All three complement each other and are indispensable. The basic principle of training is based on the biological characteristics and physiological features of pigeons and the principle of "conditioned reflex".

The fundamental purpose of training is to cultivate, exercise and improve the quality of pigeons, to bring into play their inherent biological characteristics and specialties, so that they have the basic elements and conditions to complete various communication and competition tasks. The basic content of training includes: basic training, flight training, competition training, adaptation training and application training. In principle, the training should start from young pigeons, from simple to complicated, from near to far, from day to night, from basic training to professional training, in short, from easy to difficult.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书）

Historically, Genghis Khan used pigeon posts to keep in touch with distant parts of his empire, and even in ancient Greece, carrier pigeons were used to announce major events, such as the Olympic Games! In the 12th century, a fairly extensive network of homing pigeons was established between Syria and Baghdad. One of the last active carrier pigeon posts was in India, but the carrier pigeon was officially retired in 2002. During the war years, carrier pigeons also played a role that could not be ignored. They were able to cross enemy lines more easily than men on horseback. This earned them the name "war pigeon". People continued to use carrier pigeons to deliver letters even up to the time of World War II.
(scienceabc 19 Oct2019)

====2.Paper Letters====

The letter is a kind of application document that transmits information and exchanges thoughts and feelings to a specific object. “Letter" in the ancient text with the meaning of audio, news, in addition, "Letter" also has a trustworthy meaning of the words transmitted by the trustee, whether it is a message sent to a person, or through the letter carrier by letter to the specific object of language and writing to convey information and exchange of ideas and feelings of the letter, there must be three elements: one is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.

Written letters to relatives and friends, not only can convey their thoughts and feelings, but also can give the recipient of the letter a feeling of intimacy; technology continues to progress, and the emergence of the telephone, telegraph, postal tape, video tape, e-mail and other means of exchange of information, it can be expected e-mail will be used by more and more people, which has actually been proven.

With the development of society, the relationship between people and society is also being reconstructed. In addition to the traditional use of correspondence, i.e., official letters and private letters, a new development is the use of personal letters to government agencies, enterprises and institutions, famous scholars, and other individuals for personal needs, and the use of this type of correspondence is gradually increasing and noteworthy. We call them personal correspondence.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件）

====3.E-mails====

E-mail is a way of communication that provides information exchange by electronic means and is the most widely used service of the Internet. Through the network's e-mail system, users can contact network users in any corner of the world at a very low price (no matter where they send it, they only have to pay for the network fee) and in a very fast way (it can be sent to any specified destination in the world within a few seconds).

E-mail can be in many forms such as text, images, sound, etc. At the same time, users can get a large number of free news and feature emails and easily achieve information search. The existence of e-mail greatly facilitates communication and exchange between people and promotes the development of society.

However, there are many drawbacks in using e-mail. For example, there is a risk of information being stolen and there is a lot of spam on the network. To address these two problems, the following solutions are available. Firstly, from the perspective of network security of the website itself, using hardware firewall devices is definitely the best solution. Second, a full-time network administrator should be assigned to regularly maintain the website. Thirdly, when applying for mailbox, choose a more protective username, such as a combination of English and numbers, which can be less harassed by spam. Fourth, avoid disclosing your email address. Fifth, use good mail management and screening function. outlook express, foxmail and qqmail all have good mail management function, users can screen mails by setting rules of mail domain, mail subject, source, length and so on.

The format of an e-mail address consists of three parts. The first part "USER" represents the account number of user mailbox, which must be unique for the same mail receiving server; the second part "@" is the separator; the third part is the domain name of mail receiving server of user mailbox, to mark its location.

According to Internet Week, the world's first email was a short message sent by computer scientist Professor Leonard K. to his colleagues (in October 1969, I believe), which consisted of only two letters: "LO". Professor Leonard K. explained, "Back then I was trying to communicate with a computer at the University of California and another computer at the Stanford Research Center near San Francisco. What we were doing was logging in from one computer to the other. The way to log in at that time was to type L-O-G. So we typed L and asked, 'Do you get L?' The other side replied, 'Yes.' Before we received a confirmation that the other party had received G, the system went down. So the first online message was 'LO', which means 'Hello!'"

The first e-mail from China on September 20, 1987 was sent by Werner Zorn, the "Father of the German Internet," and Wang Yunfeng at the Institute of Applied Computer Technology in Beijing to the University of Karlsruhe in Germany, in English.
Original text: Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.

It means “跨越长城，走向世界。” This is the first email sent from China to the Global Science Network through the network connection between Beijing and the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.(Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件）

===References===
1.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Pigeon Post,飞鸽传书 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%A3%9E%E9%B8%BD%E4%BC%A0%E4%B9%A6/7009129?fr=aladdin

2.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：Written Letters,手写信件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E4%B9%A6%E4%BF%A1/1095625?fr=aladdin

3.Baidu Encyclopedia 百度百科：E-mail 电子邮件 https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E9%82%AE%E4%BB%B6/111106?fr=aladdin

4.scienceabc.How Did the Pigeon Post Work?. https://www.scienceabc.com/19 Oct2019.

===Terms and Expressions===

条件反射conditioned reflex

成吉思汗 Genghis Khan

信鸽驿站pigeon post station

战鸽war pigeon

分隔符separator

服务器域名domain name

互联网周刊Internet Week

===Questions===

1.What part of pigeon is the letter tied to when you want to send a letter?

2.What animals do the western countries use to send letters in spite of pigeons?

3.Why pigeons can be used to send letters?

4.What are the three elements in writing and sending letters?

5.When did the world's first emails appear?

6.How to translate China’s first e-mail “Across the Great Wall we can reach every corner in the world.”

===Answers===

1.Letters are tied to the feet of pigeons.

2.Ravens.

3.Pigeons can fly and fly faster, can recognize directions, have a good sense of the earth's magnetic field,
and are particularly home-loving, so they are used to improve the speed of delivering mail.

4.One is the ability to express their thoughts and feelings; two is to have the appropriate writing tools; three is someone to deliver.

5.October 1969

6.跨越长城，连接世界

==Landscape, Five Famous Mountains - Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛 202070080642 MTI英语口译==

Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.
The “Five Sacred Mountains” (or Wuyue – 五岳), also referred to as the Five Great Mountains, began with Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (157 BC – 87 BC). “Yue” in Wuyue means high mountains. During the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism and Taoism began to build temples and carry out religious activities on the Five Sacred Mountains.
Emperors of ancient China would perform excursions to the mountain peaks and offer non-human sacrifices on a regular basis. This tradition became a ritual of the state according to Confucianism and was one of the must-do activities upon becoming emperor. This tradition continued right up until the fall of the last dynasty in 1911.
While the Five Great mountains are not denoted as sacred mountains of either Buddhism or Taoism, they do have a strong Taoist presence and many Buddhist temples.
The Five Great Mountains remain places of pilgrimage to this day with many young people having the goal of climbing all five and retracing the footsteps of the ancient emperors during Imperial China. The mountains are popular tourist attractions and are well developed featuring good tourist and transport services and several are national AAAAA rated scenic sites.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===Mount Tai (泰山) – Wuyue East Great Mountain===
Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)

Province: Shandong | Height: 1,533 metres (5,030 ft)
Mount Tai, or Taishan, is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai’an, in Shandong province, China. Mount Tai has been a place of worship for at least 3,000 years and is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction.
Mount Tai has been worshipped since the time of Shang culture, roughly 3,000 years ago. Emperors of China would come to this mountain to meditate and offer sacrifices, similar to writers and artists who for centuries have visited Mount Tai for inspiration. Given its long-running history of worship, the mountain has been preserved with little alteration. It is also considered one of the most climbed mountains in China. The hike is not an easy one and may take most of the day to reach the top.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Heng (Hunan) (衡山) – Wuye South Great Mountain===
Province: Hunan | Height: 1,300 metres (4,265 ft)
Hengshan, is a mountain in southcentral China’s Hunan Province known as the southern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan is a mountain range 150 kilometres (93 mi) long with 72 peaks. The Huiyan Peak is the south end of the peaks, Yuelu Mountain in Changsha City is the north end, and the Zhurong Peak is the highest at 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above sea level. At the foot of the mountain stands the largest temple in southern China, the Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao), which is the largest group of ancient buildings in Hunan Province.
Mount Heng in the south has a total of 72 peaks all of which are covered in trees, some of which are centuries-old. It is a beautiful spot to hike in the summer to admire the blooming greenery. Among the mountain peaks, a number of Buddhist temples are scattered. Of note is the Grand Temple of Mount Heng located at the foot of the mountain. The temple has survived many dynasties, with the earliest records of its existence dating back to the 8th century AD. Although the temple was severely damaged during the Cultural Revolution, it retains its religious significance to many believers.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===Mount Hua (华山) – Wuyue West Great Mountain===
Province: Shaanxi | Height: 2,160 metres (7,087 ft)
Mount Hua, or Huashan, is located near the city of Huayin in Shaanxi province, about 120 kilometres (75 mi) east of Xi’an. It is the western mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China, and has a long history of religious significance. It is a National AAAAA level scenic spot featuring skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.Mount Hua is a popular destination for those staying in the ancient capital of Xi’an. The mountain complex consists of five major peaks, all of which are accessible for hiking. Nevertheless, a number of narrow paths and rugged steps make it a challenging climb, and at the south peak, the narrow plank walk running along the side of the mountain will challenge anybody’s relationship with heights. While walking along two narrow planks (attached with a harness to the edge of the mountain), you can move along the mountain. The trick is that it’s not a one-way path, and your balance will be tested when handling traffic coming from the other direction.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Heng (Shanxi) (恒山) – Wuyue North Great Mountain===
Province: Shanxi | Height: 2,017 metres (6,617 ft)
Mount Heng, or Hengshan, is located in north-central China’s Shanxi Province, known as the northern mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. Heng Shan in Shanxi Province is sometimes known as the Northern Heng Shan, and the one in Hunan Province as Southern Heng Shan. Both mountains have the same pronunciation in Chinese, and the Southern Heng Shan is also one of the Five Sacred Mountains.
Similar to many other revered mountains in China, Mount Heng holds meaning for the followers of the Taoist faith. The mountain may not be as popular as the other four, given its northern location, but that can be seen as advantage for a hiker seeking peace and isolation. Located at the foot of the mountain is the Hanging Monastery (Xuankong Si) running along the side of the mountain. The wooden structure is supported by dozens of wooden pillars, and despite its feeble appearance welcomes many visitors every year.(Rodney,2019)

===Mount Song (嵩山) – Wuyue Center Great Mountain===
Province: Henan | Height: 1,500 metres (4,921 ft)
Mount Song, or Songshan, is a mountain in central China’s Henan Province, along the southern bank of the Yellow River, that is known as the central mountain of the Five Great Mountains of China. It is a National AAAAA level tourist attraction and world heritage listed site. It is noted for its rich cultural heritage as the birthplace of Zen, the Taoist holy land, and the origin of kung fu.
One of China’s central mountains, Mount Song is located on the bank of the Yellow River, close to the ancient capital of Luoyang. Mount Song is best known as the location of the Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism, and thus retains religious significance to followers of both Buddhism and Taoism. The Shaolin Temple attracts curious visitors who want to observe the practitioners of martial arts demonstrating superb strength and coordination. The area around the mountain peaks has a number of other Taoist and Buddhist monasteries.(Anastasiia Ilina,2017)

===References===
Anastasiia Ilina. The Five Great Mountains of China. https://theculturetrip.com/asia/china/articles/the-five-great-mountains-of-china/.2017

Rodney. The Five Great Mountains of China (Wuyue 五岳). https://welcometochina.com.au/.2019

===Terms and Expressions===

Taoism 道教

cultural revolution 文化大革命

plank 厚木板

Hanging Monastery 悬空寺

Zen 禅宗

Shaolin Temple 少林寺

Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties 魏晋南北朝

practitioners of martial arts 习武之人

monastery 寺庙

===Questions===

1. What does “Wuyue（五岳）” mean？

2. Do you know any famous Chinese lyrics related to Mount Tai?

3. What is the largest temple in southern China?

4. What are the features of Mount Hua?

5. What is the structure of the Hanging Monastery?

6. What is the famous site in Mount Song?

===Answers===

1.Wuyue (五岳) is the general name of the five famous mountains in Chinese Han culture and is the product of the combination of ancient folk mountain god reverence, the concept of the Five Elements and imperial excursions and meditation in ancient times.

2.会当凌绝顶，一览众山小。——杜甫

四月上泰山，石屏御道开。——李白

泰山不要欺毫末，颜子无心羡老彭。——白居易

3. Grand Temple of Mount Heng (Nanyue Damiao).

4. It features skywalk, temples, stone formations, caves, waterfall etc.

5. It has a feeble appearance with wooden structure supported by dozens of wooden pillars.

6. The Shaolin Temple, the birthplace of Chan Buddhism.

--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Chinese Education - Tang Bei 汤蓓 Student No. 202070080607 英语笔译==

===Ancient Chinese Education===

====History====
China’s ancient education was one of the most splendid components of ancient Chinese culture. Chinese education had a long history dating from the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties 3000/4000 years ago.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education) In the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th century BC), formal schools emerged with the names like “Xiao” (school), “Xue”(study) and “Daxue”(higher school). Teachers then were all government officials and students were all children of the nobility, so that was the earliest “Guan Xue”(Government School/Education). Education became more popular by the Spring Autumn/Warring States period. Confucius became the earliest founder for “Private Education”. This type of private school education is often known as “Si Xue” (private institution).(Zhu Hanming, 2010,319)

From Han till Qing Dynasty, the formation of government institution had been well-established. All the teaching materials and educational training were geared towards the preparation for Imperial examination. After receiving a title in the Imperial examination, one might receive a post in the state bureaucracy. At the same time, private schools were also developing. Most of the famous philosophers and scientists were originated from private schools. Apart from schooling, “Family education” began to play an important role. Many of the famous historical figures grew up under the education and strict ‘teaching’ by their parents or other senior family members, and they studied hard in order to become successful. For instance, it was well documented that Mencius’s mother had moved three times with her son before she eventually found a proper neighborhood for the son’s education. After the Han dynasty, because of the increased status of Confucianism and its influence, the teaching of “poetry and rites” became the basic content for family education. Loyalty, Filial Piety, Benevolence and Righteousness were core values taught in family education.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Chinese Ancient Education)

In ancient Chinese education, there was another form of education system known as “Xue Shu Jiao Yu”. This belongs to neither an institute education nor a family education. These are generally “primary school for the folks”. Sometimes, they were called “Meng Guan”(primary education hall), “Si Shu ” (private school), “Zu Xue” (extended family school) , etc. Most students will first learn how to read characters, then they will learn The Three Character Classic ”, The Hundred Family Surnames, The Thousand Character Classic. Then they will learn the “Four Books”. In addition, they will also learn Chinese calligraphy and character pairing. In this type of school, the rules and regulations are especially strict. There are other methods such as Shuyuan and Guozijian, etc. They all formed a unique way of knowledge teaching and became important system for the development on “study of knowledge”, “teaching method”, etc. All of these formed the basis for today's Chinese education.(Zhu Hanming, 2010, 323)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

====Confucian Educational Theory====

The historical importance of education in Chinese culture is derived from the teachings of Confucius. The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system thus became permanently linked right into the present time. Confucius broke the rule of “Xue Zai Guan Fu”
(learning at the government hall. He encouraged “learning for all hierarchical levels and for all ages”, and opened the door of education to the commoners. He established his own school and started to spread his teaching, thoughts and views. He became the earliest founder for “Private Education”.(Zhu Hanming, 2010,320)

In ancient Chinese education, whether they were government or private school, they all placed a great emphasis on humanities and cultural education, which focused on the teaching of morality and the development of wisdom. It covered philosophy, language, literature and other cultural subjects. The curriculum at the Great Academy was based on the Confucian Five Classics.(Chinasage:Imperial Examination）

Confucius taught his students morality, proper speech, government, and the refined arts. While he also emphasized the “Six Arts” — ritual, music, archery , chariot- riding , calligraphy , and computation — it is clear that he regarded morality as the most important subject.(Biography: Confucius) Confucius had been regarded as the pioneer founder of family education. According to The Analects of Confucius, Confucius wanted his son to learn both poetry and rites. He said, “if one does not learn poetry, one will not be able to talk properly”, “if one does not learn rites, one will never be well footed in the society.” Other than placing a strong emphasis on morality education, Chinese education also emphasized greatly on learning/teaching method and principles. Below are some common Confucian educational philosophies:
Revise the old in order to deduce new things.
Learning and Thinking are equally important.
Learn in a systematic and progressive way, from a beginner’s level to the advanced.
Inspiration and Guidance.
Teach according to students’ ability; use appropriate materials for teaching.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius)

Confucius’s goal was to create gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things. The long The Master said in The Analects that:
“Is it not delightful to acquire knowledge and put it into practice from time to time？“Learning without thought is labor lost; thought without learning is perilous.” (Kong qiu, 2016)
Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking. His pedagogical methods were striking. He posed questions, cited passages from the classics, or used apt analogies, and waited for his students to arrive at the right answers.

The status of education remained high in Confucian heritage cultures in East Asia. Beyond that, translations of Confucian texts influenced European thinkers of the period as well, particularly among the philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization. The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma. He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying China as a model for Europe.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Confucius)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

====Chinese Imperial Examination====

The Chinese Imperial Examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select talented people for future positions in civil service. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China. It was established in 605 during the Sui Dynasty and lasted more than 1,300 years until the last examination in 1904 when the last Chinese feudal kingdom—the Qing Dynasty—was coming to an end. Somehow the modern examination system for selecting civil service staff also indirectly evolved from the imperial one. It was part of the process by which candidates who passed the exams could receive a title called jinshi, or some other degree, which in turn would generally be followed by appointments to government offices.（Newworldencyclopedia: Imperial Examination）

The first three of Jinshi were ranked Zhuangyuan, Bangyan and Tanhua respectively. The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree. Each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing “eight-legged essays” — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, a desk, and a bench. There were no interruptions in those three days, nor were candidates’ allowed any communication. Since the pressure to succeed was intense, cheating and corruption were rampant. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized. In the ancient society, class consciousness was strong and many people from lower classes would have had little chance to reach high office, not to mention having any position in the official court.（Jin zheng, 1990）

However, once the imperial examination system was introduced, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination and thus realize their self-development. In this sense, passing the imperial examination was also called “carps jumping across the dragon’s gate” . The dragon had always been regarded as the symbol of mighty power and especially that of the rights exercised by the emperor, consequently the success of examination candidates was proudly called “jumping across the dragon’s gate.”(Baidu Encyclopedia: carps jumping across the dragon’s gate)

In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values. The uniformity of the content of the examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across China were taught with the same values. Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.（Newworldencyclopedia: The Imperial Examination）
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 13:20, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''：Chinese Ancient Education,中国古代教育

*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： Confucius,孔子

*Baidu Encyclopedia''百度百科''： The Imperial Examination,科举制度

*Jing Zheng金铮.(1990)''科举制度与中国文化''[Imperial examination system and Chinese culture]. Shanghai:Shanghai People's Publishing Press 上海人民出版社.

*Kong Qiu& Chen Dian孔丘&陈典.(2016)''论语''[The Analects of Confucius]. Jiangxi：Jiangxi People's Publishing Press 江西人民出版社.

*Wanghui王惠.(2016)''中国社会与文化翻译教程''[A Coursebook on China’s Society and Culture Translation]. Beijing：Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.

*Zhu Hanmin 朱汉民.(2010)''中国传统文化导论''[Introduction to Chinese traditional culture]. Hunan:Hunan University Press 湖南大学出版社.

https://www.biography.com/scholar/confucius

https://www.chinasage.info/examinations.htm

https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Imperial_Examinations_(Keju)
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 11:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
Spring Autumn/Warring States period 春秋战国时期

Loyalty 忠

Filial Piety 孝

Benevolence 仁

Righteousness 义

poetry and rites 诗礼

Xue Shu Jiao Yu 学塾教育

Meng Guan 蒙馆

Zu Xue 族学

archery 射

chariot- riding 御

calligraphy 书

computation 数

state bureaucracy 政府机构

The Three Character Classic 《三字经》

The Hundred Family Surnames 《百家姓》

The Thousand Character Classic 《千字文》

Four Books 四书

Shuyuan 书院

Guozijian 国子监

Confucian Five Classics 五经

Six Arts 六艺

Jinshi 进士

Zhuangyuan 状元

Bangyan 榜眼

Tanhua 探花--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===
1.What’s Confucius educational goal?

2.What are Confucius main educational thoughts?

3.What became permanently linked right into present time?

4.Before private educationa began, only who could be taught in government schools?

What are the forms of the Chinese Imperial Examination?

6.How did examiners evaluate the examination?

7.What are the functions of the the Chinese Imperial Examination?

8.What kind of far-reaching influence does the Chinese Imperial Examination have?--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===
1.Confucius’s goal was to creat gentlemen who carry themselves with grace, speak correctly, and demonstrate integrity in all things.

2.Confucius’s main educational thoughts were to teach students according to their aptitude, to treat students equally and to inspire thinking.

3.The connection between Confucius and the official Chinese educational system.

4.Noblemen’s children

5.The examinations consisted of a battery of tests administered at the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Only three-hundred candidates could pass the imperial examinations, which would be supervised by the Emperor himself. Candidate scholars often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.

6.In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third person before being evaluated to prevent the candidate’s handwriting from being recognized.

7.In late imperial China, the examination system and associated methods of recruitment to the central bureaucracy were major mechanisms by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites.The examination system also served to maintain cultural unity and consensus on basic values.

8.Despite the significant effect of promoting Confucian culture and education, it also influenced education systems in many other countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and similarities can be found in the personnel selection methods employed in France, America and Britain. Today’s education system is surely its successor.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cuisine, Chinese Dining Etiquette - Tang Yiran 汤伊然 202070080643 英语口译==

===Chinese Dining Etiquette===

China is a country with a long history of rituals and etiquette, and eating is a highly important feature of China’s culture, so naturally, dining etiquette has developed to a high degree. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC). Through thousands of years of evolution, it has developed into a set of generally accepted dining rituals and practices. (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306)

[[File: A Chinese Dining Table.jpg|400px|thumb||Diagram of A Chinese Dining Table. Click [https://cn.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NirSI%2bVR&id=F71307AA9E3664A2B8373E6E88E02E5D05C49E65&thid=OIP.NirSI-VRq1BPyCrjxboLtQHaE3&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hwaoconsulting.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f10%2fresize-of img_3335b.jpg&exph=567&expw=863&q=chinese+dining+etiquette&simid=608033216312313291&ck=DCAFE6250D3ADA26FE11D0CF34A4591D&selectedIndex=12&FORM=IRPRST&ajaxhist=0/File:A Chinese Dining Table.jpg] for original source.]]

====Attendance====

As a guest at a meal, one should be careful about his or her appearance and determine whether to bring small gifts or good wine, according to the degree of relationship with the master of the banquet. It is important to attend and be punctual. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

On arrival, one should first introduce himself or herself, or let the master of the banquet do the introduction if unknown to others, and then take a seat following the master of the banquet’s arrangement. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

====Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet====

Dining etiquette in ancient times was enacted according to four-tier social strata (Edward L.Davis 2005, 306) :

1. the imperial court

2. local authorities

3. trade associations and

4. farmers and workers

In modern dining, seating arrangements have been simplified to:

1. master of the banquet

2. honored guest(s)

3. other guests.

The seat of honor, reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status, is the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance. Those of higher position sit closer to the master of the banquet. The guests of the lowest position sit furthest from the seat of honor. When a family holds a banquet, the seat of honor is for the guest with the highest status and the head of the house takes the least prominent seat. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

If the guest of honor or most senior member is not seated, other people are not allowed to be seated. If he hasn’t eaten, others should not begin to eat. When making toasts, the first toast is made from the seat of honor and continuing down the order of prominence. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''A. Round Table'''

If round tables are used, the seat facing the entrance is the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor are second, fourth, sixth, etc in importance, while those on the right rank at third, fifth, seventh, and so on. In the end, they will join together. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''B. Square Table'''

In ancient times there was a piece of furniture known as an Eight Immortals table, a big square table with benches for two people on each side. If there was a seat facing the entrance, then the right-hand seat when facing the entrance was for the guest of honor. If there was no seat facing the entrance door (presumably if the meal was outside or there were two or more doors of equal importance), then the right-hand seat when facing east was the seat of honor. The seats on the left-hand side of the seat of honor were, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and eighth and those on the right were third, fifth, and seventh. (Ruru Zhou, 2018)

'''C. In Grand Banquet'''

In a grand banquet of many tables, the table of honor is the one furthest from the entrance (or facing east in the event of no clear main entrance). The tables on the left-hand side of the tables of honor are, in order of importance, second, fourth, sixth, and so on, and those on the right are third, fifth, and seventh. Guests are seated according to their status and degree of relationship to the host of the banquet. (Ruru Zhou 2018)

[[File: Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg|450px|thumb||Diagram of Seating Arrangements for A Chinese Banquet. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.qJkC9LsUyfYKOzLWkbS5JwHaGI?w=214&h=180&c=7&o=5&dpr=1.25&pid=1.7/File:Seating Arrangements in A Chinese Banquet.jpg] for original source.]]

====Chinese Table Manners====

Most table manners in China are similar to in the West. Don't be deceived by what you might see in a local restaurant on the streets. Chinese manners are more than slurping food down as quickly as possible, and shouting loudly! When eating a meal in China, people are expected to behave in a civilized manner (according to Chinese customs), pay attention to table manners, and practice good dining habits. In order to avoid offense, diners should pay attention to the following points (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020):

'''A. Considering Others'''

1) Let older people eat first, or you can start to eat if you hear an elder say "let's eat". You should not steal a march on the elders. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

2) When helping yourself to the dishes, you should take food first from the plates in front of you rather than those in the middle of the table or in front of others. It's bad manners to use your chopsticks to burrow through the food and "dig for treasure" and keep your eyes glued to the plates. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

3) Even if you find your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. You should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) Concentrate on the meal and your companions. Watching television, using your phone, or carrying on some other activity while having a meal is considered a bad habit. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) You should try to refill your bowl with rice yourself and take the initiative to fill the bowls of elders with rice and food from the dishes. If elders fill your bowl or add food to your bowl, you should express your thanks. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

'''B. "Thank you" Gesture'''

Tea usually is served as soon as you have a seat in a restaurant. A waiter/waitress serves you tea while you read the menu and decide what to order. The teapot is left with you on the table after everyone around the table's cup is filled with tea. Guests then serve themselves. When someone pours tea into your cup, you can tap the table with your first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

'''C. Elegance'''

1) You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl, and palm empty. If you don't pick up your bowl, bend over the table, and eat facing your bowl, it will be regarded as bad table manners. Moreover, it will have the consequence of compressing the stomach and restricting digestion. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

2) It is not good to pick up too much food at a time. You should behave elegantly. When taking food, don’t nudge or push against your neighbor. Don’t let the food splash or let soup or sauce drip onto the table. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

3) When eating, you should close your mouth to chew food well before you swallow it, which is not only a requirement of etiquette but also better for digestion. You should by no means open your mouth wide, fill it with large pieces of food, and eat up greedily. Don’t put too much food into your mouth at once to avoid leaving a gluttonous impression. Neither should you stretch your neck, open your mouth wide, and extend your tongue to catch food you are lifting to your mouth. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

4) When removing bones or other inedible parts of the meal from your mouth, use chopsticks or a hand to take them and put them on a side plate (or the table) in front of you, instead of spitting them directly onto the table or the ground. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

5) If there is food around your mouth, use a tissue or a napkin to wipe it, instead of licking it with your tongue. When chewing food, don't make noises. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

6) It is best not to talk with others with your mouth full. Be temperate in laughing lest you spew your food or the food goes down your windpipe and causes choking. If you need to talk, you should speak a little and quietly. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

7) If you want to cough or sneeze, use your hand or a handkerchief to cover your mouth and turn away. If you find something unpleasant in your mouth when chewing or phlegm in the throat, you should leave the dinner table to spit it out. (Gavin Van Hinsbergh, 2020)

====Rules and Conventions Relating to Chopsticks====

1) Do not stick chopsticks vertically into your food when not using them, especially not into rice, as this will make Chinese people think of funerals. At funerals, joss sticks (sticks of incense) are stuck into a pot by the rice that is put onto the ancestor altar. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

2) Do not wave your chopsticks around in the air too much or play with them. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

3) Do not stab or skewer food with your chopsticks. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

4) Pick food up by exerting sufficient inward pressure on the chopsticks to grasp the food securely and move it smoothly to your mouth or bowl. It is considered a bad manner to drop food, so ensure it is gripped securely before carrying it. Holding one’s bowl close to the dish when serving oneself or close to the mouth when eating helps. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

5) To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other. This needs much practice. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

6) Some consider it unhygienic to use the chopsticks that have been near (or in) one’s mouth to pick food from the central dishes. Serving spoons or chopsticks can be provided, and in this case, you will need to remember to alternate between using the serving chopsticks to move food to your bowl and your personal chopsticks for transferring the food to your mouth. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

7) Knives are traditionally seen as violent in China, and breakers of the harmony, so are not provided at the table. Some restaurants in China have forks available and all of them will have spoons. If you are not good at using chopsticks, ask the restaurant staff to provide you with a fork or spoon. (Liao Huaying, 2008: 170)

[[File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg|700px|thumb||Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China. Click [https://tse3-mm.cn.bing.net/th/id/OIP.Mm8fEFD8whyIbD1-UdrJEwHaEn?pid=Api&rs=1/File: Diagram of Using Chopsticks in a Bad Manner in China.jpg] for original source.]]

===References===
1. Edward L. Davis. (2005). ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture''. Taylor & Francis e-Library,

2. Guo Shangxing, Sheng Xingqing. (1993). ''A History of Chinese Culture'', Kaifeng: Henan Uni. Press.

3. Morton, W. Scott, & Lewis, C. M. (2005). ''China: its History and Culture'', New York: MacGraw Hill, Inc.

4. Sun Xiaoyu. (2010). ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld.

5. Gavin Van Hinsbergh. (2020). How to Eat in China—Chinese Dining Etiquette. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/dining-etiquette.htm.

6. Ruru Zhou. (2018). Seating Arrangements for a Chinese Banquet. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/chinese-food/seating-arrangement.htm.

7. Liao Huayin廖华英主编.(2008). 《中国文化概况》 [An Glimpse of Chinese Culture] Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. 160-180.

--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 22:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

seat of honor 上座/尊位

Eight Immortals table 八仙桌

burrow through the food 乱翻食物

“dig for pleasure” 挖宝藏

side plate 小菜碟

napkin 餐巾纸

handkerchief 手帕

phlegm 痰

windpipe 气管

joss sticks （中国祭祀用的）香

ancestor altar 祖先祭坛

skewer 刺穿/串肉扦子

serving chopsticks 公筷

===Questions===

1. What do you know about the history of Chinese dining etiquette?

2. What does the “Seat of Honor” mean? Are there any commons of “Seat of Honor” in different dining situation?

3. How should we deal with our favorite food in a meal？

4. What is the way to show gratitude to the tear pourer?

5. How should we pick up the bowl when eating?

6. What manners of using chopsticks are considered bad in China?

===Answers===

1. Dining etiquette is said to have its beginnings in the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BC).

2. The seat of honor is reserved for the master of the banquet or the guest with the highest status. It is commonly the one in the center facing east or facing the entrance.

3. When finding your favorite dish, you should not gobble it up as quickly as possible or put the plate in front of yourself and proceed to eat like a horse. Instead, you should consider others at the table. If there is not much left on a plate and you want to finish it, you should consult others. If they say they don’t want anymore, then you can eat proceed.

4. We can tap the table with our first two fingers two or three times, showing thanks to the pourer for the service and for being enough tea. The pourer will stop pouring when seeing the gesture.

5. You should pick up your bowl with your thumb on the mouth of the bowl, first finger, middle finger the third finger supporting the bottom of the bowl and palm empty.

6. Rummaging through the food in a dish with chopsticks and searching for choice pieces, sticking chopsticks vertically into a bowl of rice, or pointing at people with them are all considered bad table manners.

==Three Giant Home Appliance Enterprises In China==
by Wang Meiling 王美玲 202070080608 MTI 英语笔译

===A.Midea===

Midea is a technology group of consumer electronics, HVAC, robotics and automation systems, and smart supply chain (logistics).Founded in Shunde, China in 1968, Midea officially entered the household appliance industry in 1980. In 1981, Midea registered its brand. The group employs a total of 130000 people, whose headquarter is locate in Shunde, Guangdong Province. Midea Group has about 200 subsidiaries, more than 60 overseas branches and 10 strategic business units worldwide, and is the main shareholder of KUKA group (about 95%) in Germany . Midea now has more than ten brands such as Midea and Little Swan. and has 15 and 6 production bases separately home and abroad.( Midea Co., Ltd, 2020)

Midea's diversified development strategy can reflect its wide range of business : consumer electrical appliances mainly including kitchen appliances, refrigerators, washing machines and all kinds of small household appliances; HVAC business focusing on heating and ventilation systems such as household air conditioning and central air conditioning; robot and industrial automation system business with German KUKA group and Midea robot company as the core.Up to July 2020, Midea ranked 22nd in the list of China's Top 100 Most Valuable Brands in 2020.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Midea)

To some extent, enterprises seems like a person. Generally speaking, the style and personality of an enterprise are greatly affected by the values and behavior styles of enterprise leaders. Enterprise style and characters can determine the fate and future itself.（Liu Buchen，2016:3）

Midea focus on sound operation. If Haier and Gree went to two "extremes", Midea would choose the "middle road", which is neither extreme left nor right. It will not suddenly break the original management framework and organizational structure,which, otherwise, would place the enterprise in high risk. Midea Group’s New Vision, mission,values and business principles are not only rooted in the achievements of historical accumulation, but also the strategic blueprint for the future. The New Vision,“the perfection of science and technology lead to the perfection of life”, continues the Midea’s emphasis on science and technology and human-oriented spirit; The new mission,“connecting people and things, enlightening the world of Midea” reflects its strategic thinking on the development trend of technology, industrial chain and global layout, and makes the linkage between people and things in different scenes more advanced, thus stimulating the leapfrog development of people’s lives and production; Through the value“dare to know the future”, Midea could continue carrying forward its spirits of future orientation and embracing changes.

In the light of the wide range of its business, we can see that Midea is actively promoting diversified development（Liu Buchen，2016:2-3）: in the area of air-conditioning, Midea，since 1998，has made a series of acquisitions and mergers, expanding its air-conditioning capacity and entering the field of air-conditioning compressors. Moreover, it has produced the core components of air conditioning, increased research and development and cooperation in air conditioning, then begun to produce the core components of air conditioning compressor, increased research and development in the core components; as for small household appliances, since 2001, Midea has mastered the core components of microwave oven and become one of the three largest production bases in the world. Subsequently, the Group has reorganized the small appliance business under direct control and developed professionally on the basis of diversification.

Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket” , and its disadvantage lies in the difficulty for firms to concentrate and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.

Midea's business strategy can be described as "two-pronged approach". On the one hand, Midea relies on its own enterprise strength to continuously optimize the performance of its core products and has made earnest efforts to improve the quality of its core products.

On the other hand, through a series of acquisitions and mergers on home appliance brand，Midea has furthered its market penetration, and enhanced the market share, expanded the user group, leading to its accomplishment of “Extension Expansion” strategy. In fact, the strategy is not limited to mergers and acquisitions, but also includes the continuous paces into new industrial fields. Midea is building its own "Second Runway", that is “New Product Incubation Platform”, which is not limited to the field of home appliances. As long as meeting Midea's standards for "innovative products", any products can enter the incubation platform.

In 2020, affected by the COVID-19, the rising leverage ratio of the residential sector, the rising food prices, as well as the continuing low marriage and birth rates, the pace of further expansion of the household appliance market has been hindered. As one of the three giants in China's home appliance market, Midea is naturally deeply aware of the weakness of the home appliance market, which is reflected specifically in the decline of market demand for color TV sets, air conditioners, kitchen appliances and household appliances.

Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth. Midea has further expanded its online market scale which has continuously diverted offline market scale. It has been developing an integrated sales channel with both online and offline, which has been promoted orderly on Suning, Gome, Jingdong, Tmall and other platforms. Facing the domestic market, Midea has been consolidated its basic system and established a unified business language and rules.

In 2020, the global trade friction continues to escalate, tariff barriers increases Midea’s risk of overseas market expansion, and the exchange rate between countries continues fluctuating. All of these factors mentioned above has increased Midea’s risk to engage in product export and to exchange loss.

Facing the overseas market, Midea will adhere to the consumer-oriented and product-leading strategy, give full play to its network advantages in global R&D and user research, grasp the differentiated needs of foreign consumer groups, improve the construction of multi-brand operation system, leading to further open-up of the foreign market and the improvement of market share.

===B.Haier===

Haier, formerly known as Haier Qingdao, is a leading global provider of solutions for a better life. Founded in 1980 and headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, it was listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange (600690) and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (690D) in 1993 and 2018, respectively. Relentlessly centered on user experience and geared to the beat of the times, Haier has developed from an insolvent collective small factory on the verge of closure into an ecological enterprise leading the Internet of Things era. It has been the world's only IoT ecological brand for two consecutive years in the BrandZ 100 most valuable global brands. In the Internet of Things era, Haier is leading the world in terms of its ecological brand and single-unit model. Moreover, it boasts the world's largest market share in white goods R&D, production and sales, as well as in the integrated channel business of large appliances.( Haier Co., Ltd, 2020)

Haier adopts Diversification Product strategy, but it differs from Midea's in that the former has broader fields. Its business scope mainly includes the R&D, production and sales of and smart home scene solutions and smart home appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, water heaters, kitchen appliances, small home appliances. It also engages in IT industry such as digital technology, intelligent technology, software technology, enterprise management services and consulting, information technology services, etc. Through a rich combination of products, brands and solutions, Haier creates a whole scene of intelligent life experience to meet users' pursuit of the good life.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Haier)

Corporate culture is the soul and gene of an enterprise. Haier's corporate culture is one of change, always following the times and continuous innovation and development, which can be summed up in four words: self-righteousness. It means everyone is constantly challenging themselves, overcoming themselves, reinventing themselves, and changing themselves according to external changes. So it can be said that Haier's corporate style is "paradigm change".

Haier has its own core values: the concept of right and wrong of "always take the user as yes, take oneself as no" is Haier's motivation to create users; the concept of development of "everyone is the creator, chain group becomes self-driven" is Haier's way of looking at sustainable development; the concept of "win-win" is the guarantee for Haier's sustainable operation. Haier's corporate spirit is "ecological integrity, win-win evolution". In the process of continuous entrepreneurship and innovation, the Haier Group always adheres to the development main line of "human value first".
Haier has formed a perfect innovation culture which is dynamic and constantly optimized. Zhang Ruimin once said, "There exist no successful enterprises, only enterprises geared to the times."

From 1992, Haier has begun to expand from one product to a variety of products, and comprehensively implemented a diversification strategy. Through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures, and cooperation, Haier has rapidly entered the field of white goods such as freezes, air conditioners, and washing machines from a single product refrigerator.

In 1997, with the production of digital color TVs as a symbol, Haier entered the field of black home appliances from the field of white goods; in 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which was known abroad as the field of beige home appliances. In 1998, Haier ventured into the computer industry, which is known abroad as the beige home appliance industry. In the process of expansion, Haier has engaged in capital operation in the way of eating "shock fish" and insisted on revitalizing tangible assets with intangible assets, which ensured the success rate of capital operation and the low-cost expansion. In this way, the goal of making Haier bigger and stronger in the shortest period of time was achieved. Haier still takes home appliance industry as its main industry, with sales accounting for about 40-70% of Haier's total sales.

Haier has adopted a parallel strategy：on the one hand: Haier will set self-innovation as the core of corporate culture, the implementation of strategic innovation to establish the corporate brand, focus on making refrigerators upgrade, adhere to the Internet of Things smart home ecological brand strategic direction; on the other hand, Haier is undergoing a large-scale enterprise change, and we can hardly continue to classify Haier as "home appliance enterprises". "After the change in the business model, Haier's many micro and small companies can decide their own development prospects, and the Haier Group does not limit or intervene in the their fields to entry. So the path of extensive expansion Haier takes is very broad.(Huang Xu,2017:2)

During the epidemic, Haier's 3Q report achieved high quality growth, which is closely related to the future layout of Haier since more than 10 years. Haier has been exploring the transformation from "selling products" to "selling scenes" to adapt to the consumption trend of experiential scenes. When realizing differentiated competition, Haier brings user experience and industry development into a new dimension. With a forward-looking strategic layout and strong landing capabilities, Haier has formed industry differentiation advantages in smart package, experience cloud and mass customization, and promoted the company's transition to a smart home ecological brand. Haier is currently the leader in the domestic Internet market, but will face challenges from crossover competitors such as Xiaomi and Huawei, and needs to focus the company's resources to win the battle.

Among the home appliance enterprises, Haier is the first to go abroad, and is also the enterprise with the highest market share in overseas markets. In 2016, Haier also acquired the American General Electric Company at a sky-high price of $5.58 billion, which is the largest overseas merger and acquisition in China's home appliance industry, making Haier leap from a Qingdao local enterprise to a multinational white goods leader, and also marking the acceleration of Haier's internationalization process again. At the same time, Haier has been ranked first in the global home appliance market share for many years, with over 10% of the global home appliance market share.According to Euromonitor, Haier has kept its leading position in the Asia-Pacific and North American markets (the two markets together account for 63.5% of global retail sales). Taking the advantage of the concerted efforts of Candy, Haier merged recently, Haier is expected to achieve its market share among the top five in the European market and to become a true leader in the home appliance industry worldwide.

===C.Gree===

Gree, founded in 1991, is an international home appliance company integrating R&D, production, sales and service, with three brands: Gree, TOSOT and Jinghong, headquartered in Zhuhai, Guangdong Province. Dong Mingzhu Gree's chairman, president and legal representative. In 1996, Gree was listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange. Gree has more than 90,000 employees, among whom there are 15,000 R&D personnel and 30,000 technical workers. It has 15 production bases and 15 research institutes at home and abroad. Gree has been on the Fortune Magazine's list of "China's Top 100 Listed Companies" for 9 consecutive years. The "Gree" brand of air conditioners is a "world famous brand" in China's air conditioning industry, with business in more than 100 countries and regions around the world.( Gree Co., Ltd, 2020)

Its business mainly includes: sales, installation and maintenance of central air conditioning, refrigeration, air conditioning equipment, clean air conditioning, heating equipment, ventilation equipment; kitchen utensils, stainless steel products, daily-use hardware; household refrigeration appliances, household air conditioners and related parts; machinery and equipment, and wholesale of electronic products. Unlike Haier and Midea, Gree adopts a specialized product strategy and has been focusing on the research and development of various types of air conditioners. As a large appliance manufacturer focusing on air conditioning products, Gree has established itself as the leader in the domestic air conditioning market, and its brand culture is deeply rooted in the people's hearts, and is well known in the domestic air conditioning market with slogans such as "Fine air conditioning that Gree creates" and "Buy good-quality, choose Gree". Since 2005, Gree has been the global leader in the production and sales of air conditioners for 7 consecutive years.(Baidu Encyclopedia: Gree)

In implementing the strategy of creating a famous brand, Gree prioritizes the construction of corporate culture and strive for corporate culture as a unified goal: the corporate spirit of "Loyalty, Friendliness, Diligence and Progress" fully reflects Gree’s requirements to its employees; the business philosophy of "making the best air conditioners for consumers" accurately and clearly shows Gree’s commitment to the society and consumers, as well as its determination to stick to the road of specialization and its confidence in the pursuit of excellence in product quality; the service concept of "Every little thing you do is a big thing for Gree!" demonstrates that Gree puts service throughout the entire production and operation activities of the enterprise, emphasizing pre-sales, in-sales and after-sales services; the management concept of "Innovation has no limitations" enables Gree to achieve high efficiency and low cost in the production process.

Gree has delivered outstanding performance in air conditioning largely due to the fact that Gree has been focusing on air conditioning for the past few decades without any distractions. Gree have several large production bases around the world, and its research scope includes twenty major categories, more than 400 series, which can meet the various needs of consumers. Gree have so far owned thousands of technical patents of air conditioners, and decades of quality improvement work have made Gree air conditioners achieve a qualitative leap in quality, from "Made in China" to "Created in China".

On the one hand, Gree belongs to the typical intensive growth model, where the driving force for development basically comes from within the enterprise and rarely relies on external forces, such as M&A. Gree takes the path of training talents independently, and has 12 research institutes and more than 30,000 technical developers. Gree sets various series of air conditioners its main business，whose entire production chain of production, processing, sales and marketing channels are operated internally.

On the other hand, compared to Haier and Midea, Gree's outward expansion has been smaller. One of Gree's large-scale mergers and acquisitions of significance was the industrial industry integration that began in early 2004 and was completed in the same year. Gree successfully acquired the Group's shares of Lingda Compressor, Gree Small Appliances, Gree Electric and other companies, contributing to forming an industrial advantage, improving its core competitiveness and seizing the industry high ground.(Duan Qiang,2013:49)Interestingly, Gree announced its intention to enter the new energy vehicle industry by acquiring Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy, which was a huge breakthrough in Gree's long-held intensive growth model in these years.

In 2020, as air conditioners enter the era of saturation, Gree faces difficulty before market opportunities and challenges. In recent years, Gree is obviously increasing the diversification of the layout, in order to disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years, Dong Mingzhu hopes to find new growth points through diversification of the layout, which is the reason why Gree cell phones, Gree (Yinlong) new energy vehicle projects have been showed in the market. If new growth points were not cultivated in time, the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree Appliances in the coming years couldn’t be ruled out.

Gree's business is expected to be a high-end intelligent manufacturing equipment in Gree's diversified business. Gree, which has diversified genes and the courage to experiment with various businesses, opened a medical equipment company during the epidemic, and product masks and air purifiers that can kill COVID-19. The enthusiasm for diversified business exploration is closely related to Dong's energetic and aggressive style. But the deeper reason lies in that Gree needs more opportunities to grab the market in areas other than white home appliances, especially air conditioners.

Gree’s air conditioners have gained international recognition for their technology, quality and price advantages,which have been exported to more than 100 countries and regions around the world. Gree's trademark has been applied for international registration in 77 countries around the world, laying a brand foundation for the internationalization of Gree's products. At the same time, Gree is extending its production lines to foreign countries to enhance the confidence of foreign dealers and consumers in Gree and improve its international image.

===Terms and Expressions===

HVAC 暖通空调 Shunde （广东）顺德

Smart supply chain 智能供应链 Intensive Growth 内生式增长

leverage ratio 杠杆率 Second Runway 第二跑道

air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机 Tmall 天猫

Qingdao （山东）青岛 Shock Fish 休克鱼

3Q report 三季报 IoT 物联网

Experience cloud 体验云 Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一

chain group 链群 Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司

Candy （意大利）卡迪集团

TOSOT 大松电器公司 Jinghong 晶弘电器公司

Gree Electric 格力电工 Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所

Created in China 中国创造 General Electric Company 格力电工

Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司 COVID-19 新型冠状病毒

Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机

HVAC 暖通空调

Shunde （广东）顺德

Smart supply chain 智能供应链

Intensive Growth 内生式增长

leverage ratio 杠杆率

Second Runway 第二跑道

air conditioning compressor 空调压缩机

Tmall 天猫

Qingdao （山东）青岛

Shock Fish 休克鱼

3Q report 三季报

IoT 物联网

Experience cloud 体验云

Ren Dan He Yi 人单合一

chain group 链群

Euromonitor 欧睿信息咨询公司

Candy （意大利）卡迪集团

TOSOT 大松电器公司

Jinghong 晶弘电器公司

Gree Electric 格力电工

Shenzhen Stock Exchange 深圳证券交易所

Created in China 中国创造

General Electric Company 格力电工

Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy 珠海银隆新能源有限公司

COVID-19 新型冠状病毒

Lingda Compressor 凌达压缩机--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Questions===

1.Why does Midea implement diversified development strategy?

2.what development strategy does Midea adopt?

3.How does Midea differ from Haier and Gree in terms of its style?

4.How will Midea deal with the weakness of home appliance market?

5.What kind of home appliances does Haier focus on the most?

6.What is the difference between Haier and Midea's diversified product strategy?

7.What is Haier's "Ren Dan He Yi" model?

8. The pros and cons of Haier's extensive expansion strategy.

9. Why did Haier transform to a smart home eco-brand?

10. Why has Gree expanded its diversified layout in recent years?

11. Do you think whether Gree should acquire Zhuhai Yinlong New Energy ?

12.What is the impact of Dong Mingzhu's style of work on Gree's development?

===Answers===

1.Diversification has the advantage of spreading risk, that is the theory of “don’t put all your eggs in one basket".

2.Diversified product layout and Intensive growth model and Exclusive expansion model.

3.Midea will unswervingly increase R&D investment on such emerging home appliances, maintain high-quality development direction, and adhere to inclusive growth and sustained and effective growth.

4.Midea focus more on moderate operation.

5.White home appliances.

6.Haier’s diversified product strategy is more wide-ranging.

7.It is a business mode which refers to every employee should face users directly, create user value, and realize their own value sharing when creating value for users.

8.Pros:to expand its business scope and spreading business risk.

Cons:to have difficulty concentrating itself and, relatively speaking, to establish absolute competitive advantage in one or more specific areas.

9. To win the favor of consumers who are in the pursuit of high-quality life and become more and more dissatisfied with household appliances which can only passively follow instructions and complete tasks.

10.(1)To disperse the risk that the air conditioning industry may continue to slump in the next few years.

(2) to find new growth points through diversification of the layout.

(3)to avoid the possibility of continued stagnation of Gree in the coming years.

11.No,because air conditioning and automobile are totally different. Gree's air conditioning technology is not helpful for new energy vehicles. Gree's familiar products and sales processes are also different from those of the automobile industry. Therefore, it is rather risky to enter the automotive field.

12.Dong Mingzhu's energetic and aggressive style will put forward Gree’s diversified business exploration which will create more opportunities and possibilities and also high risks.

===References===

1.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Gree,格力

2.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Haier,海尔

3.Baidu Encyclopedia百度百科：Midea,美的

4.Duan Qiang段强.(2013)格力电器营销战略研究[Research on Marketing Strategy of Gree Electric Appliance]. Huazhong University of Science and Technology 华中科技大学.

5.Huang Xu黄旭.(2017)海尔产品的品牌效应和营销策略[Brand Effect and Marketing Strategy of Haier Products].Industry and Technology Forum 产业与科技论坛.

6.Liu Buchen刘步尘.(2016)中国家电三巨头,谁与争锋[Who is the Top among Three Home Appliance Enterprises in China].Chinese and Foreign Management 中外管理.

7.Haier Co., Ltd,https://www.haier.com/

8.Gree Co., Ltd,https://www.gree.com/

9.Midea Co., Ltd,https://www.midea.com/cn/

==National Flag of the People’s Republic of China==
by Wang Xuan 王轩 202070080609 MTI 英语笔译

===A A brief introduction of National Flag of the People's Republic of China===
The national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, the symbol of the country. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag. Red and rectangular, its length and height are three to two. Five yellow five pointed stars are decorated on the top left of the flag. One star is larger, and its circumscribed circle diameter is three tenths of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is one tenth of the flag height, and the ring is arched to the right of the big star.
The national flag of the people's Republic of China began to solicit the design of the national flag from July 14 to August 15, 1949. On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 (3012) national flag designs. On September 27, 1949, deputies to the first plenary session of the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) passed a motion to use the five-star red flag as the national flag. On October 1, 1949, the first national flag was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. The five pointed stars are used in yellow to show light on the red ground. Each of the four small five pointed stars faces the center of the big star, indicating unity around a center.

===B Establishment process===

===1. Solicit comments from the public===

On June 15, 1949, the Preparatory Committee for the National Committee of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was formally established in Peiping, shortly after Liberation. The preparatory work undertaken by this committee included the important task of formulating the national flag of new China, and designated the sixth group of the Preparatory Committee to be responsible for it.
On 4 July 1949, the sixth group held its first meeting. The meeting decided to publish newspapers to solicit the patterns of the national flag and the national emblem, and to set up a selection committee for the national flag and the national emblem pattern and the national lyrics score. In addition to the group members participating in the selection, Xu Beihong, Liang Sicheng, Ai Qing and other experts were invited to participate.
From July 14 to August 15, 1949, people's daily, Jiefang Daily, Xinhua daily and other newspapers and periodicals published the notice of the preparatory meeting of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference asking for the design of the national flag. The news of asking for the design of the national flag quickly spread to the whole country and overseas. Many people in their spare time, spread out the paper and began the design work. They carefully designed and drew one pattern after another with their own characteristics, marked with detailed instructions, and sent them to Beijing. They regard the design and drawing of the national flag as a glorious and noble thing to pour their boundless love for new China.

===2. Collect drafts from all walks of life===

On August 20, 1949, the national flag and national emblem Selection Committee received 2992 pieces of national flag patterns. Guo Moruo, Chen Jiageng and other members of the preparatory committee also submitted their sample designs. These designs were displayed in the temporary reading room. The selection committee selected 38 draft plans from them and incorporated them into the reference materials for the design of the national flag and submitted them to the newly established Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference for discussion.

===3. Pass a resolution===

The design of the national flag of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was approved in the 32nd session of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference. In the pattern of five-star red flag before this, there are sickles and axes in the big stars. Before the adoption of the resolution, the national flag and national emblem review group made partial modifications to the design pattern, and made a unified explanation on the significance of the national flag pattern.
On September 27, 1949, the resolution on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China, adopted at the first plenary session of the CPPCC National Committee, stipulates in the fourth point that "it is unanimously adopted: the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red earth flag, which symbolizes the great unity of the revolutionary people of China." The resolution of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference on the capital, chronology, national anthem and national flag of the people's Republic of China and the measures for flag making adopted by the presidium of the Chinese people's Political Consultative Conference stipulate that the national flag of the people's Republic of China is a five-star red flag, which is rectangular, and symbolizes revolution.

Its length and height are three to two, and five yellow five pointed stars are on the top left of the flag, symbolizing the revolutionary unity under the leadership of the Communist Party of China The star symbolizes red with yellow, and the earth is bright. One star is larger, its circumscribed circle diameter is 3 / 10 of the flag height, which is on the left; the four stars are smaller, and their circumscribed circle diameter is 1 / 10 of the flag height, and they are circled on the right side of the big star, and each has an angle point facing the center of the big star, which expresses the aspiration of hundreds of millions of people to the great Communist Party of China, just like the northern star. The flagpole cover is white to distinguish it from the red flag.
On September 29, 1949, the people's Daily published the pattern of the new national flag and the explanation of its making method, which were provided to all walks of life for making and using.
On October 1, 1949, the first national flag of the people's Republic of China was first raised by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square.

===C Symbolism of the flag===
The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party. Yellow is used to show light on the red ground. Yellow is brighter and more beautiful than white. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.

=== Terms and expressions ===

五星红旗 five-star red flag

中国共产党 the Communist Party of China(CPC)

全国政治协商会议 the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC)

《人民日报》 People's Daily

《解放日报》 Jiefang Daily

《新华日报》 xinhua Daily

=== Questions ===

1. Who designed the national flag of the people's republic of China?

2. When did the national flag of the people's republic of China come into being?

3. What does the red color mean on the national flag of the people's republic of China?

4. Is there any profound meaning of the five stars on the national flag of the people's republic of China?

5. Is there any symbol meaning of the people's repuclic of China?

=== Answers ===

1. Zeng Liansong is the designer of the national flag.

2. On September 27, 1949

3. The red color of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution.

4. The five five pointed stars on the flag and their relationship symbolize the great unity of the revolutionary people under the leadership of the Communist Party.

5. The red flag of the people's Republic of China symbolizes revolution. Each of the four small Pentagram stars has a point facing the center of the big star, which means that they are united around a center and are compact and beautiful in form.

=== References ===

[1] Barnabas Cristóbal. Constitution of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2011.

[2] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of Chcina[J]. 2010.

[3] Surhone L M , Timpledon M T , Marseken S F , et al. National Emblem of the People's Republic of China[J]. 2010.

[4] 高军. 中华人民共和国国旗的符号学浅析[J]. 美术教育研究, 2012, 000(011):46-47.

[5] 王哉. 五星红旗是怎样设计出来的——曾联松设计中华人民共和国国旗始末[J]. 山东农机化, 2016, 000(005):49-50.

[6] 霞飞. 中华人民共和国国旗诞生始末[J]. 党史文苑(7期):4-11.

[7] 中央档案馆. 中华人民共和国国旗国徽国歌档案[M]. 中国文史出版社, 2014.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:54, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

==China's Four New Inventions - Wu Qiong 吴琼 202070080644 MTI 英语口译==

Most people know about China's Four Inventions: gunpowder, paper-making, compass, and printing. Those represented Chinese ancient wisdom and what an outstanding history China had. Today, China still holds this place and influence in technology and inventions. In May, 2017, teenagers from 20 nations along the Belt and Road selected China's four new inventions: High Speed Railway, QR code payment, bike sharing and online shopping.

Although these new inventions were not first invented by China, it is China that makes full use of them, and introduces them to the rest of the world. The four new inventions bring incredible changes and convenience to people's lives. China, at the same time, makes contributions to the development of humanity. World's future will be brighter and more prosperous due to more technologies and inventions such as China's Four New Inventions.

===A. High-speed railway ===

High-speed railway is a railway system with advanced design and high-speed rails run on it. The world's first official high-speed rail system is the Tokaido Shinkansen line and it goes into public in 1964, connecting the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka. The high speed railway has promoted the rapid development of Japan. Its designed speed is 200km/h, which then becomes the initial speed standard of high-speed rail. Later, with the advancement of technology, the speed of trains became faster. Different countries have different definitions of high-speed railways in different eras. According to statistics, the length of high-speed railways in operation in China has reached to more than 6,800 kilometers. China has become the country with the most comprehensive high-speed railway system technology, the strongest integration capability, the longest operating mileage, the highest operating speed, and the largest scale of construction in the world.(东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会 [[File:Tokaido Shinkansen line.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Tokaido Shinkansen line]]

====Features====

1. High-speed railways are very smooth to keep safety and comfort. With all seamless steel tracks, and a speed of more than 300 kilometers per hour，they use ballastless tracks, that is, a monolithic track bed without stones to maintain smoothness.

2. The high-speed railway has few bends, as the bend is of long radius, and the turnouts are all moveable high-speed turnouts.

3. The rails use a large number of viaducts and tunnels to ensure ride comfort and shorter distances.

4. The catenary of the high-speed railway suspends the wires on the top of the train and is also different from that of ordinary railways to keep stability and durability of the high-speed EMUs.

5. The signal control system of high-speed railways is higher than that of ordinary railways, because of the frequent departure and high speed of rails, it needs to be of high safety. (科普中国 2020)

====Merits====

1. Large passenger capacity. Generally, high speed rails can accommodate 600 people. Compared to other public tools such as busses, boats or airplanes, high speed trains have more seats.

2. Less time-consuming. In addition to the maximum operating speed, passengers are more concerned about travel time. High speed rails will not operate in late night, so passengers can get off the rails almost in daytime, thus to finish their business or other private matters which helps save a lot of time.

3. Good safety. Due to the automatic operation of high-speed rails in a fully enclosed environment and a series of complete safety guarantee systems, thus no other transportation means can be matched with it. Since the advent of high-speed railway 35 years ago, Japan, Germany, and France have already transported 5 billion passengers. Although there have been major traffic accidents on high-speed railways, the accident rate is much lower than that of civil aviation and is almost negligible. It is still the safest transportation system.

4. High punctuality. All high-speed railways adopt automatic control and can operate around the clock unless there is an earthquake.

5. Comfortable and convenient. High speed rails have spacious and comfortable seats, stable operation, shock absorption, sound insulation, and quiet environment.

6. Low energy consumption. High-speed trains use electric traction, do not consume precious petroleum and other liquid fuels, and use various forms of energy, which is not a wasteful transportation mean.(Kang Tianchi 2018)

'''Terms and Expressions'''

High speed railways高速铁路 the Tokaido Shinkansen line东海道新干线[[File:highspeedrail.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|High speed rail]]

the three major metropolitan circles of Japan: Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka.日本三大都市圈: 东京、名古屋和大阪

integration capability整合能力 operating mileage运营里程.

seamless steel tracks无缝钢轨 ballastless track无砟轨道

a monolithic track bed整体式道床 moveable high-speed turnouts.可动心高速道岔

viaducts and tunnels高架桥梁和隧道 high-speed EMUs.高速动车组

shock absorption and sound insulation减震隔音 petroleum and other liquid fuels石油等液体燃料

'''Questions'''

1. Where does the first high speed railway come from?

2. What is the name of the first high speed railway?

3. What is the advantages of high speed railway?

4. What are the features of high speed railway?

5. Which transportation carries more passengers, high speed rails or trains?

6. From Changsha to Shanghai, which transportation means will you choose?

'''Answers'''

1. The first high speed railway come from Japan

2.The name of the first high speed railway is Tokaido Shinkansen line.

3.The advantages of high speed railways are fast, smooth, safe and comfort.

4. The features of high speed railway viaducts and tunnels and signal control system.

5. High-speed rails carries more passengers.

6. High-speed rails.

===B. QR code payment===

The QR code payment model is based on the concept of mobile payment, and the first batch of payments made by mobile devices occurred in Finland in 1997. Finnish local media reported that Finland Telecom has enabled the service of operating jukeboxes and beverage vending machines by dialing a pay phone number. This service allows you to buy Coca-Cola at Helsinki Airport. The QR code, also known as "two-dimensional code" was invented in 1994 by the Japanese company DW. and nowadays, we usually use Alipay or WeChat pay to finish the process of payment.

====Background====

The rise of QR code payment methods in China is not occasionally. It is mainly related to the rapid development of IT technology and the rapid advancement of e-commerce. The maturity of IT technology has promoted the birth of mobile terminals such as smart phones and tablet computers, which makes people's mobile life more colorful. At the same time, domestic e-commerce is also closely related to "mobile", especially the development of O2O. With a large number of mobile devices and a large amount of mobile consumption, payment costs have become particularly critical. Therefore, QR code payment solutions came into being. (China's Four New Inventions 2018)

====Characteristics====

At the end of 2010, QR codes and related technologies were widely circulated on the Internet, marking the beginning of the widespread popularity of QR codes in China. The popularity of any thing must have its reasons, and so is QR code payment. [[File:Alipay.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Alipay]]

1. Mature technology
QR code payment already has mature technical means in developed areas abroad, which has laid the foundation for the development of domestic QR code technology, and it is believed that it will quickly become popular.
2. Easy to use
After the user installs the QR code recognition software, the transaction can be completed by simply swiping the place where the QR code is posted.
3. Convenient payment
With the QR code payment method, merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery, and consumers can also make real-time payments anytime, anywhere.
4. Lower cost
Due to the maturity of technology and the popularization of mobile devices, the cost of QR code payment has become very low. (科普中国，2020）

'''Terms and Expressions'''

QR code (Quick Response code)快速反应码

Finland芬兰 Telecom电信

jukebox点唱机 beverage vending machine饮料自动售货机

Helsinki Airport 赫尔辛基机场

'''Questions'''

1. What advanced the birth of QR code?

2. When did the QR code become popular in China?

3. Why does QR code cost lower?

4. When was the QR code invented?

'''Answers'''

1. The maturity of IT technology advanced the birth of QR code.

2. At the end of 2010, QR code become popular in China.

3. Merchants do not have to bear high cost payments such as cash on delivery.

4. QR code invented in 1997.

===C. Shared bikes===

As early as 1965, the Municipal Government of Amsterdam in the Netherlands proposed the "White Plan". According to the plan, the government purchased 50 bicycles and painted them with white paint as a sign and scattered them around the city for people to use. This was the earliest in the world. The unmanned shared bicycle system is invented by the Netherlands. In 2007, France also had free cycling, and it was only later that China became popular and innovative models developed and promoted overseas.

====Function and Using Steps ====

By providing services on campuses, subway stations, bus stations, residential areas, commercial districts, public service areas, etc., bicycle-sharing (bicycle) companies complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation. Produce synergy with other public transportation methods. Shared bicycles are a time-sharing lease model and a new type of green and environmentally friendly sharing economy. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli, China Statistics 2018)

1. Find a free shared bike, download the bike sharing app, pay a deposit, and enter your password to use the bike.[[File:shared bike.JPEG|500px|thumb|right|Shared bike]]

2. Use the app to find the nearest shared bike, click on the "Use Bike Now" button and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.

3.Download the bike sharing app, find the vacant bikes, click the "Use Bike Now" button, get a set of numbers, and enter a set of numbers on the bike to use the bike.

====Development====

China's bike-sharing market has gone through three stages of development. The first phase is from 2007 to 2010. The public bicycle model that has emerged from abroad is introduced into the country, and the government will lead the management in different cities, mostly with piled bicycles. 2010-2014 is the second stage. Companies specializing in the bicycle market began to appear, but public bicycles are still dominated by piled bicycles. The third phase is from 2014 to 2018. With the rapid development of the mobile Internet, Internet shared bicycles led by Mobike came into being, and more convenient dockless bicycles began to replace docked bicycles. (Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 2018)

'''Terms and Expressions'''

Amsterdam阿姆斯特丹 the unmanned shared bicycle system 无人管理的共享单车系统

free cycling 单车自由行 residential areas 居民区

last mile ”最后一公里“ green and environmentally friendly economy 绿色和环境友好型经济

the first phase第一阶段 dockless bicycles无桩单车

'''Questions'''

1. Which country invented the shared bike?

2. What is the main purpose for the invention of shared bike?

3. How many phases at present have the shared bikes experienced?

4. How's the prospect of the shared bikes?

'''Answers'''

1. Netherlands invented the shared bike.

2.To complete the ”last mile“ in the transportation industry and drive residents' enthusiasm for using other public transportation

3. There are three phases at present have the shared bikes experienced

4. With the development of the four new inventions, the shared bikes will be more and more developed.

===D. Online shopping===

Online shopping belongs to the category of e-commerce. In 1979, the British Michael Aldrich invented the concept of online shopping. Aldrich used a technology called video text to connect an ordinary TV set to the computer of a local retailer through a telephone line. By the 1990s, after Amazon and eBay launched their websites in 1995, e-commerce became popular around the world.

====Definition====

Retrieve product information through the Internet, and send a shopping request through an electronic order form, and then fill in a personal checking account or credit card number. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company. For online shopping in China, the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions. (科普中国 2019） [[File:Online Shopping.JPEG|600px|thumb|right|Online Shopping]]

====Development====

As early as 1999, Chinese Internet prophets began to build B2C websites, dedicated to promoting online shopping in China. But this approach was generally questioned by the economics community at that time. (Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?) However, in the future, these doubts will all go away. They have been solved by large shopping websites, courier companies other than postal services, and many third-party online payments that connect with major banks.

With the development of the economy, online shopping has gradually reappeared. In 2005, Dangdang achieved annual sales of 440 million yuan, a figure that greatly exceeded the expectations of most investment institutions two or three years ago. This number proves the success of the Amazon (famous e-commerce website) model in China, as well as the over-pessimism of economists and the greatness of market forces.

With the popularity of the Internet, the advantages of online shopping have become more prominent, and it has increasingly become an important form of shopping. The 29th Statistical Report on Internet Development in China released by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) in January 2012 shows that as of the end of December 2011, the number of Internet users in China reached 513 million, with 55.8 million new Internet users throughout the year; The penetration rate increased by 4 percentage points from the end of last year, reaching 38.3%. The number of mobile Internet users in China reached 356 million, a year-on-year increase of 17.5%. Compared with previous years, the growth of China's overall Internet users has entered a platform period.（Han Yuanjia 2017）

'''Terms and Expressions'''

retrieve product information检索商品信息 a courier company快递公司

direct bank transfer直接银行转账 online remittance在线汇款

secured transactions担保交易 cash on delivery货到付款 logistics and distribution 物流配

'''Questions'''

1. What are people concerning about before the online shopping came true?

2. How could people pay online?

3. How was the situation in the previous economic field?

'''Answers'''

1. Will there be enough consumers shopping online? Can online shopping solve the problem of logistics and distribution? Can online shopping solve the problem of online payment?

2. the general payment method is cash on delivery (direct bank transfer, online remittance) and cash on delivery for secured transactions.

3. The manufacturer will ship the goods by mail order or deliver the goods to the door through a courier company.

===References===

中国“新四大发明”(2018).时代英语. English Times.

Wu Fangyi 吴方意.(2019).浅谈中国古代四大发明与大一统性[An Introduction to the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China and Grand Uniformity].西部学刊, Western Journal (16):133-136.

Kang Tianchi 康天驰.(2018).中国“新四大发明”“走出去”研究[Research on China's "Four New Inventions" and "Going Global].知识文库,Knowledge Library (11):244.

Du Yuheng, Han Wei, Kou Jingli 杜禹珩,韩伟,寇京丽.(2018).中国新四大发明之共享单车[China's New Four Inventions of Bicycle Sharing].中国统计,China Statistics.(03):77.

Han Yuanjia 韩元佳.(2017). 看“新四大发明”如何讲述中国奇迹?[See how the "Four New Inventions" tell the story of China's miracle?].创新时代,The Age of Innovation. (12):28-29.

Wanying Xie,Zeshui Xu,Zhiliang Ren. An Analysis on the Influence of Chinese “New Four Inventions” Under the Incomplete Hybrid Probabilistic Linguistic Environment[J]. International Journal of Fuzzy Systems,2019,21(5).

Zhou Yixiang 周一翔.(2017).The “New Four Great Inventions” of China Impact on the World.校园英语,Campus English(52):255.

Deborah Strumsky,José Lobo. Identifying the sources of technological novelty in the process of invention[J]. Research Policy,2015,44(8).

东海道新干线のバイパス[J].中央新干线委员会

==Four Domestic Mobile Phones==
by Wu Yilu 吴一露 202070080610

===A.Huawei===

Huawei is probably the name that needs no introduction among all the Chinese phone manufacturers. “It's the world's second largest smartphone company, and it's at the center of an international battle for technological dominance between Beijing and Washington.” (Sareena Dayaram, 2020)

Founded in 1987, Huawei focuses on providing information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure and smart devices. With more than 194,000 employees, this company operates in more than 170 countries and regions, serving more than three billion people around the world. Huawei is a private company wholly owned by its employees. It means no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)

Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The benefits of digital technology shouldn't just be available to those who can afford it. Huawei's mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills. For example, three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei are 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.

"Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020) The company has a well-developed internal governance structure, under which all governance bodies have clear and focused authority and responsibility, but operate under checks and balances. This creates a closed cycle of authority and achieves rational and cyclical succession of authority, so as to drive the facilitation and implementation of the company's common values.

[[File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg|650px|thumb|middle|Diagram of Huawei Corporate Governance. Click [https://www-file.huawei.com/-/media/corporate/images/about-huawei/2020/corporate-governance-structure-18en.png?la=en-us/File:Corporate Governance Structure.jpg] for original source.]]

Huawei is continuing to focus on research and innovation to seize the opportunities and address the challenges of the future intelligent world. There are many innovations and inventions of Huawei to drive the industry forward, including advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on. From this we can find that the main business of Huawei is communication stations，while that of Apple is consumer electronics. Today, Huawei have entered the 5G ear and embarked on 6G research. It is exploring new directions for 6G. To this end, they began research into the basic theories of 6G and initiated extensive open collaboration projects with other industry players and pushed the industry to build a consensus on 6G. (Huawei Device Co., Ltd, 2020)

Since the top executive (the daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran, this telecommunication giant, which was unknown to most American, appeared frequently in newspapers, especially since the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license. (Sareena Dayaram,2020)

For Huawei, that meant it could lose access to crucial technological parts including semiconductors, which are key components used in its base stations and phones. It also meant Huawei's handsets cannot use Google's Android operating system, which provides several popular apps including the Google Play store, Gmail, Google Maps and apps that rely on Google like Uber and eBay. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) The Mate 30 was Huawei's first major phone to launch without Google's proprietary apps. All people thought this would decrease Huawei’s sale. Of course, it does. But the company reported first-half earnings showing revenue grew more than 13% from a year ago to around $65 billion.

===Terms and Expression===

Huawei cloud 华为云 Intelligent Collaboration 协同管理技术

optical networks 光纤网络 Carrier Network 承载网络

intelligent O&M 智能委托运营 the Kunpeng 920 鲲鹏920

AI computing 人工智能计算 AppGallery 华为应用程序库

information and communications technology (ICT) 信息与通讯技术 Media CODEC standards 编解码标准

===Questions:===

1.When is Huawei founded?

2.How many countries and regions does Huawei operate?

3.Do government agency and outside organization hold shares if Huawei?

4.What is the vision and mission of Huawei? And what do they do to achieve this mission?

5.What are the three main world-changing technologies built by Huawei?

6.What are the innovations and inventions of Huawei?

7.What are the company’s common values?

8.What makes that the telecommunications giant frequently was mentioned across newspapers?

9.Which phone is the first major phone launched without Google’s proprietary apps？

10.What’s your opinion towards these two issues mention above? Will these hinder the development of Huawei?

===Answers:===

1. It is founded in 1987.

2. It operates in more than 170 countries and regions

3. No, no government agency or outside organization holds shares in Huawei.

4. Their vision and mission is to bring digital to every person, home and organization for a fully connected, intelligent world; their mission is to expand the benefits of technology to everyone, everywhere. To achieve this, they've developed a digital inclusion strategy that focuses on three areas: technology, applications, and skills.

5. 5G, Huawei cloud and Huawei AI.

6. Advanced wireless networks, optical networks, intelligent O&M, AI computing, smartphone camera, Media CODEC standards, software, trustworthiness and so on.

7. "Staying customer-centric and creating value for customers" are the company's common values.

8. ①Top executive (and daughter of the company's founder) Meng Wangzhou was arrested in Canada for an alleged violation of US sanctions with Iran.

②the US Commerce Department banned American companies from doing business with Huawei without first obtaining a license.

9. The Mate 30.

10. In my opinion, these are totally unfair to Huawei, as well as China’s companies and economy. The Meng Wanzhou case is a serious political incident orchestrated by the United States to suppress Chinese high-tech companies and Huawei. It is also a kind of protectionism, which is divorced from the trend of globalization. We cannot deny that those actions will hinder the development of Huawei, specially some necessary chips. Although Huawei made preparation in advance, the core products are guaranteed to be available for six months to two years. In addition, Huawei has self-developed a large number of chip designs. But the following three areas are difficult to replace in the short term: manufacturing, semiconductor equipment and EDA software. On the one side, these issues, obviously, will obstruct the development of Huawei, but on the other side, they also promote the process of autonomy of domestic chips.

===References===

Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.

Huawei Device Co., Ltd, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/about-us/, 2020

===B. Xiaomi===

Xiaomi is one of China's earlier homegrown success companies. It is an internet company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core. Founded in April 2010 and listed on the Main Board of the Hong Kong Stock Exchange on July 9, 2018, Xiaomi has matured into one of China's domestic champions. (Xiaomi, 2020)

With the vision of being friends with its users and being the “coolest company” in the hearts of its users, Xiaomi is committed to continuous innovation, with an unwavering focus on quality and efficiency. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand, and has established the world's largest consumer IoT platform, with more than 213.2 million smart devices (excluding smartphones and laptops) connected to its platform--- Xiaomi Vela.(Xiaomi, 2020)

[[File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg|100px|thumb|left|Xiaomi-logo. Click [https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Xiaomi_logo.svg/800px-Xiaomi_logo.svg.png/File:Xiaomi-logo.jpg] for original source.]]

Currently, Xiaomi products are present in more than 90 countries and regions around the world and have a leading foothold in many markets. The "MI" in its logo stands for “Mobile Internet”.(Xiaomi,2020) It also has other meanings, including "Mission Impossible", because Xiaomi faced many challenges that had seemed impossible to defy in its early days.

“Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief. Many of their employees were initially fans of Mi products, before they decided to join them. The company relentlessly builds amazing products with honest prices to let everyone in the world enjoy a better life through innovative technology. “This low-margin strategy has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base, especially in price-sensitive countries in Asia like India, where its slick Android phones often sell out within hours of release.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020)

Besides selling phones, Xiaomi also generates its revenue from the sale of software and services. It also sells a portfolio of its own smart products including bedside lamps and air purifiers to help build its Mi brand internationally. But, Xiaomi also learns from many of its rivals to sell more expensive phones “This strategy seems to have paid off, with the company reporting nearly 14% revenue growth in the first quarter despite the business challenges of the coronavirus pandemic.” (Sareena Dayaram,2020) While Samsung and Apple have both warned of a challenging year ahead.

“The investment in the world’s fastest-growing mobile market, where over 300,000 people power up their first smartphone every day, has made Xiaomi India’s bestselling smartphone brand for three years running. In 2020 so far, it has sold 29 million phones, 2 million more than in China, to control a full quarter of India’s smartphone market.”(Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor, 2000) Another reason for its success is that when Xiaomi offered 4G services，while competitors like Samsung，Microsoft，and Indian brand Micromax were still stuck on 3G. But it does face one strong headwind: Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. A border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash, which means Xiaomi’s trajectory on the subcontinent may depend on whether the roots it planted in India qualify the brand as Indian enough.

===Terms and Expression===

IoT（Internet of Things）物联网 robot vacuums 机器人吸尘器

Xiaomi 小米 powerbank 充电宝

VR glasses 虚拟现实眼镜 UAV(Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) 无人机

electric scooters 电动平衡车 WiFi rooters 无线路由器

===Questions:===

1.When is Xiaomi founded?

2.What is the core of this company？

3.What’s Xiaomi’s ranking in the world’s smartphone brands？And what are the top 4 smartphone brands？

4.What does the "MI" in its logo stand for？

5.What is Xiaomi’s belief？

6.What has helped Xiaomi cultivate a loyal fan base？

7.How does Xiaomi generate its revenue？

8.What problem does Xiaomi confront in India？and Why？

9.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？

===Answers===

1. It is founded in April 2010.

2. The IoT platform.

3. Xiaomi is currently the world's fourth-largest smartphone brand. The top four smartphone brands are Apple, Huawei, Samsung and Xiaomi.

4. Xiaomi Vela.

5. It stands for “Mobile Internet” and "Mission Impossible".

6. “Just for fans”--- that’s Xiaomi’s belief.

7. The low-margin strategy.

8. Xiaomi generates most of its revenue from selling phones, but recurring revenue from the sale of software and services.

9. Indian consumers’ anti-China sentiment. Because a border skirmish between Indian and Chinese military forces in June ignited boycotts of Chinese goods, and then Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s nationalist government keeps stoking the backlash
10.What’s your opinion about the future of Xiaomi in Indian market？
Although we can find that Xiaomi made instant reaction to confront with this boycott by telling local media that Xiaomi was “as Indian as any other company here” , competitors like Samsung, took this chance and began flooding India with phones that could compete with Xiaomi’s features and affordability. So only if the relationship between China and India become better or Xiaomi figures a new way, otherwise, Xiaomi’s market in India will shrink gradually.

===References===

Emon Barrett & Grady Mcgregor,How Chinese phonemaker Xiaomi conquered India—and outperformed Apple, https://fortune.com/2020/12/03/xiaomi-china-phones-apple-mobile-iphone/, 2020.

Sareena Dayaram, Huawei, OnePlus and beyond: China's biggest smarthone brands you should know about, https://www.cnet.com/news/huawei-oneplus-china-biggest-smartphone-brands-you-should-know-about-lenovo-meizu-xiaomi-oppo-vivo/, 2020.

Xiaomi, About Us, https://www.mi.com/global/about/, 2020.

===C. VIVO & OPPO===

Have you ever heard about VIVO? If not, then how about its older and larger sibling OPPO. Although OPPO and VIVO aren't household brands in the West, both have vaulted up the global rankings to place within the top six smartphone manufacturers in a comparatively short period of time, due partially to the popularity of their affordable phones among young consumers. (Sareena Dayaram,2020) These two Chinese phone-makers, with similar marketing strategies like Xiaomi, use high-profile product placement and sponsorships to win over European shoppers. Besides, OPPO and VIVO smartphones are always in eye-catching glossy colors which looks good, but it’s plastic and light.So there is still much room for improvement for these two brands.

Are VIVO and OPPO same? If you didn’t know these two brands, you may say no. But yes, even though OPPO and VIVO stress that they're competitors, both companies were spun out of the same parent company. OPPO and VIVO share the same parent company mainly known as BBK Electronics Corporation (Headquarters at Dongguan, Guangdong – China). BBK Electronics Corporation is a Chinese multinational firm specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too. “BBK Electronics is also considered as the world’s 2nd-largest phone manufacturer company, which manufactures some of the fastest growing smartphones brands in Asia.” (Anchit Sharma, 2019) They recently got popular in developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.

At the 2020 Developer Conference, Color OS 11 launched by OPPO focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration. While the Origin OS launched by VIVO carried out subversive innovations mainly in UI design. The OPPO Developer Conference focuses on the integration of people, equipment and scenes. (OPPO, 2020) VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.(vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)

With the development of 5G, the interconnection of everything is the most significant trend. Both OPPO and VIVO have demonstrated cross-device synergy in the OS upgrade, and they also attach great importance to the construction of the IoT ecosystem. There are 6 research and development centers of VIVO working on leading technologies: Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA), and 4 global manufacturing bases delivering premium quality products: Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia. (vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , 2020)

===Terms and Expression===

OS 操作系统（operating system） VOOC 闪充

BBK 步步高 Fingerprint unlocking 指纹解锁

accessories 配件 octa-core processor 八核心处理器

===Questions:===

1.What’s the relationship between OPPO and VIVO？

2.What are the characteristics of OPPO and VIVO smartphones？

3.Where is the headquarter of BBK Electronics Corporation？And what is it specializing in？

4.Where are the major markets of BBK Electronics Corporation？

5.Please give a example of products from each brands.

6.What does the OPPO Developer Conference focus on？

7.What’s the mission of VIVO？

8.How many research and development centers does VIVO have？And where are they？

9.How many global manufacturing bases does VIVO have？ And where are they？

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1. They're competitors, but they were also spun out of the same parent company.

2. Affordable and eye-catching glossy colors.

3. The headquarters locates at Dongguan, Guangdong, China. It specializing in electronics such as television sets, MP3 players, digital cameras and cell phones too.

4. Developing countries of Asia such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and also in developed countries like China itself.

5. OPPO: Color OS 11;VIVO: Origin OS.

6. It focuses on personalized creation, seamless experience, and sensory invigoration.

7. VIVO’s mission is to make their consumers’ lives extraordinary through introducing innovative technology and being a trendsetter.

8. 6 research and development centers. They are in Beijing, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen and San Diego (USA).

9. 4 global manufacturing bases. They are in Dongguan, Chongqing, India and Republic of Indonesia.

===References===

Anchit Sharma, The Company behind OPPO, VIVO, OnePlus and Realme Smartphones is same?,https://www.techworm.net/2019/06/company-oppo-vivo-oneplus-realme.html,2019.

vivo Mobile Communication Co., Ltd. , https://www.vivo.com/in/about-vivo/culture, 2020.

OPPO, https://www.oppo.com/en/about/, 2020.

==Chinese Dialects Wu Zijia 吴子佳 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==

===A.Brief introduction of Chines dialects===

The words topolect and hibernation, all comes from Yangxiong (53-18), "Interpretation of Foreign Dialects: Light Xuan“in the Han dynasty. "Dialect" refers to different meanings in different groups, according to the Chinese , "dialect " is both a political concept and a linguistic one, and it is also known as "Vernacular ". "Accent", refers to the difference in the language standard of a certain region, such as relationship between relatives regardless of the language."Dialect",however, is a linguistic concept in Europe, subordinating under the concept of"language" at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Based on the relationship between the language (pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar),it is divided into family, group, branch and language.Considering the special national situation of China, The translation of "Chinese dialects" into English is "Varieties of Chinese".According to the European , dialect is a language that differs from the standarded language and is spoken in only one certain region.( Julie M. Groves 2008,1)

China enjoys a vast field and a long history. In the process of historical development, different divisions and unification inevitably occurred in the society, which led to the gradual emergence of diverse and complex dialects system in Chinese. There are many factors contributing to the evolution of dialect, including social, historical and geographical factors, as well as the language itself.
According to the dialects, Chinese is divided into two categories: the official dialects and the nine local dialects. Official dialects ,namely modern Chinese, are not independent dialects, because they are very similar in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar to the common language. Other regional dialects differ greatly in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, thus forming their own dialect systems. The official dialects include northeast Mandarin, Beijing mandarin, Ji Lu mandarin, Jiao-Liao mandarin, Central Plains mandarin, Lan-Yin mandarin, Southwest Mandarin and Jianghuai mandarin. The nine local dialects include Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua.(Li Rong 1989,241)

===B.Hunan dialect===

Xiangyu , also known as xiang dialect or Hunan dialect, belongs to the sino-tibetan language, and is the main language used by the hunan people who live in xiangjiang river basin and its branches. Xiangyu is divided into two categories: new Xiangyu and The old Xiangyu. The new Xiangyu is represented by Changsha dialect while the old one is represented by Shuangfeng dialect.The core area of ancient Chu language is located in the middle reaches of Yangtze River, and Chu language is the ancestor language of Xiang language. Modern Xiangyu speakers are mainly distributed in a considerable part of Hunan province in Mainland China, including Changsha, Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, Yueyang, Yiyang, Loudi, Hengyang, Shaoyang, Yongzhou and so on. In 2010, the number of Xiangyu-speaker was estimated to be about 45 million. The regional dialects of Hunan province include Hunan, Southwest Official, Gan, Hakka, and Xiangxiang, southern Hunan dialect, which have not yet been classified as belonging to the dialect. Xiangyu is the main dialect of Hunan Province. Hunan province is a region that has diverse dialects. (Peng Jianguo 2006,25)

The chu dialect ,namely Chu Yan (ancient Chu language), is popular in Chu in the pre-Qin period, and it is the most ancient origin of Xiang language. The specific appearance of ancient Chu language cannot be verified today, but it is the earliest language used by the Han people in Hunan and along the Xiangjiang river. The word "Chu Yan" first appeared in Zuo Zhuan, indicating that the Chu Yan had been formed at least in the late Spring and Autumn Period, and was a branch of Chinese language,and was different from the Central Plains Yayin XiaYan at that time.There are 20-35 initials of Xiangyu, 30 to 40 finals, 5-7tones,commonly with 6.(Peng Jianguo 2006,26)

===C. Contonese===

Yueyu ,or Cantonese, Guangdong dialect and Tang dialect, is commonly known as "baihua".It is a Chinese dialect in the Chinese-Tibetan Chinese language family. Cantonese is the mother tongue of the Guangfu nationality, an important carrier of the Guangfu culture of the Han nationality, and one of the basic symbolic cultural identities of the Guangfu nationality. Cantonese has a complete language system consisting of nine tones and six volumes of tones, retaining many characteristics of Middle Ancient Chinese . Besides Putonghua, it is the only Chinese language that has been studied independently by foreign universities. (Julie M. Groves 2008,2)

As for the origin of Cantonese, there are different opinions.Some says that it originated from the Northern Mid-plain dialect and others the Chu language from the State of Chu. Cantonese is one of the southern dialects that retains more middle Ancient Chinese elements than other dialects, among which the most prominent feature is that it relatively retains the universal middle Ancient Chinese "Ru Sheng", and its initials, finals and tones have a good correspondence with the ancient Chinese standard rhymes in"Qu Yun" and "Guang Yun".(Julie M. Groves 2008,25)

Mandarin is a dominant language in Guangdong province, and the most dominant dialect is Cantonese. Hakka dialect and Fujian dialect are the other two major Chinese dialects with great influence in the province. Hakka dialect is mainly concentrated in the northeast and north of Guangdong province, and hakka dialect is also distributed in parts of western Guangdong province. Hakka villages are scattered in most parts of the province, and the number of people using this dialect is about 20 million. (Julie M. Groves 2008,60)

Fujian dialect is mainly distributed in the coastal area of the southwest and southeast of Guangdong province ,including 6 municipalities:Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang, Shanwei, Zhanjiang, Maoming ,and it can be divided into to language-speaking areas: they are , Chaoshan and Leizhou .The former shares some similarities with the south Fujian dialect , while the later is close to Hainan dialect.In addition, there are 18.95 million people living in some islets in Zhongshan,Huizhou, Qingyuan, Shaoguan taking Fujian dialect as their official language.(Julie M. Groves 2008,60)

===Question===

1.How many local dialects in China?

2.What are they?

3.What is the origin of the Xiang dialect.
--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:23, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

===Answers===
1.9

2.Wu dialect, Cantonese, Fujian dialect, Hunan dialect, Hakka, Gan dialect, Hui dialect, Jin dialect and Pinghua

3.The Chu language

===References===

* Peng Jianguo 彭建国(2006)．《湘语音韵历史层次研究》.[ A Study on the Historical perspective of Xiang Phonology].”湖南大学出版社”[Hunan University Press]．25-26.

* Li Rong 李荣(1989).汉语方言的分区.[The division of Chinese dialects] (04)：241-259.

* Julie M. Groves (2008).Language or Dialect—or Topolect? A Comparison of the Attitudes of Hong Kongers and Mainland Chinese towards the Status of Cantonese .SINO-PLATONIC PAPERS.1-60.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==March of the Volunteers (National Anthem of the People's Republic of China)==
by Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译

===A. Brief Introduction===

March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er. It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times, known as the clarion call of the Liberation of the Chinese nation. Since its birth in 1935 which was the critical moment of national crisis, it has played a great role in inspiring the patriotic spirit of the Chinese people, and later became the National Anthem of the People’s Republic of China.

On May 9, 1935, the first version of the song was recorded in the recording studio of EMI Records. In 1951, in order to meet the need of playing the national anthem, the People's Record Factory recorded and published a rough record composed by a brass ensemble and an orchestral ensemble. In 1959, to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the China Record Factory recorded and published a full set of standard national anthem special records. In 1978, a special album for collective lyrics was released. In 1983, China Record Shanghai Company recorded and published a special record for the standard national anthem after the original word was restored.

On March 14, 2004, the Second Session of the Tenth National People’s Congress passed a constitutional amendment, officially stipulating that the national anthem of the People’s Republic of China shall be the March of Volunteers.

The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China was adopted at the 29th Session of the 12th National People's Congress Standing Committee on September 1st, 2017, and formally went into effect on October 1st.

===B. Creation Background===

March of the Volunteers is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times. In the autumn of 1934, Tian Han wrote a long poem for the film, the last verse of which was selected as the lyrics of the theme song March of the Volunteers. Shortly after the lyrics were written, Tian Han was arrested and imprisoned by the Kuomintang authorities. In February 1935, director Xu Xingzhi took over the shooting of Children of Troubled Times.

Soon after, comrades who went to prison to visit Tian Han and brought back the lyrics written by him in prison on the back of cigarette packing paper, that is, the original manuscript of March of the Volunteers. At that time, Nie Er was preparing to go to Japan to seek refuge. He learned that there was a theme song to write in the film children of the wind and cloud. He took the initiative to compose music for the song and promised to send back the song manuscript as soon as possible after he arrived in Japan.

Nie Er completed the first draft of the score soon after receiving the lyrics. On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft of the score, and sent the final draft to Shanghai Dentsu Film Company at the end of April. Afterwards, in order to make the song tune and rhythm more powerful, Nie Er and Sun Shiyi discussed and made three changes to the lyrics, thus completing the song creation.

After the early shooting of the film of Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, and Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film of Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.

===C. Song Appreciation===

The March of the Volunteers is a very creative song; the composer Nie Er devotes himself to the creation of this song with great passion. First of all, he succeeds in handling the poetic lyrics of Tian Han’s prose in accordance with the laws of music in an extremely vivid, powerful and colloquial way. In terms of melody creation, he not only absorbs the excellent achievements of international revolutionary songs and the style characteristics of Western European march, but also makes it have strong national characteristics, so that the song could be grasped by the broad masses and play its fighting role.

The song begins as a prelude to a six-bar march. It has a sonorous rhythm, bright and majestic melody, among which the magical effect of triplet enhances the fighting atmosphere of the song. Although the prelude is short, it contains the basis for the emotional and melody development of the entire song. The song is interlocked and advanced layer by layer. This process runs through the whole song, and the end of the song is repeated many times, giving people a sense of unwavering and unstoppable.

According to the characteristics of the lyrics clause, Nie Er treated the song into a free body structure formed by six phrases of varying lengths. Although the melody and structure of each phrase are different, the cohesion between the phrases is close, the development is natural, and the singing is ups and downs, and is integrated.

March of the Volunteers, with its soaring, sonorous and powerful melody and inspiring lyrics, expresses the Chinese people's strong resentment and resistance to imperialist aggression, and embodies the heroic spirit of the great Chinese nation that is brave, strong, united as one to go through national disaster when they are facing the foreign aggression.

===D. Chinese and English Lyrics===

起来！不愿做奴隶的人们！

把我们的血肉，筑成我们新的长城！

中华民族到了最危险的时候，

每个人被迫着发出最后的吼声。

起来！起来！起来！

我们万众一心，

冒着敌人的炮火,

前进！

冒着敌人的炮火，

前进！

前进！前进、进！

Arise, you who refuse to be bond slaves!

Let’s stand up and fight for

Liberty and true democracy.

All our world is facing

The chains of the tyrants.

Everyone who works for freedom is now crying:

Arise! Arise! Arise!

With the torch of freedom,

March on!

With the torch of freedom,

March on!

March on! March on, and on!

===Terms and Expressions===

March of the Volunteers 义勇军进行曲

Children of Troubled Times 风云儿女

EMI 百代唱片

National People’s Congress 全国人民代表大会

National People's Congress Standing Committee 全国人大常委

===Questions===
‭
1. Who are the composers of March of the Volunteers?

2.Which movie's theme song does March of the Volunteers belong to?

3.When did the National Anthem Law go into effect?

4.When was the final draft completed?

5.How did the name of this song come from?

===Answers===
1.1.March of the Volunteers is a song composed by Tian Han and Nie Er.

2.It is the theme song of the film Children of Troubled Times.

3.The National Anthem Law of the People's Republic of China formally went into effect on October 1st, 2017.

4.On April 18, 1935, after Nie Er arrived in Tokyo, Japan, he completed the final draft.

5.After the early shooting of the film Children of Troubled Times was completed, the lyrics of Tian Han's theme song did not determine the name of the song, while Nie Er's lyric composition sent back from Japan only included the word "March". General Zhu Qinglan, as the investor of the film Children of Troubled Times, added "Volunteers" after the words of "March", thus naming the song March of the Volunteers.

===References===
姜龙飞. 《义勇军进行曲》在这里诞生[J]. 中国档案报, 2020,(003)

《义勇军进行曲》这样成为国歌[J]. 当代兵团，2020（19）

百度百科.义勇军进行曲

--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Zheng He's Voyages==
by Xiao Ting 肖婷 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译

From 1405 to 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven expeditions to the coastal territories and islands in and around South China Sea,the Indian Ocean,and beyond for the Ming emperor which is an unprecedented feat in world history.(English Encyclopedia Treasure Voyages)

====Zheng He====
Zheng He was born Ma He to a Muslim family in the far southwest, in today's Yunnan province. It is said that his original surname is Ma,his full name as Ma Sanbao .At ten years old he was captured by soldiers sent there by the first Ming emperor intent on subduing the south.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He)
He was sent to the capital to be trained in military ways. Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent. He received both literary and military training, then made his way up the military ladder with ease, making important allies at court in the process. Besides Zheng He has a background of both Buddhism and lslam.Thus,he was assumed as the perfect choice to lead the emperor’s splendid armada.(Ye Lang 2008,116)[[File:Zheng He.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Zheng He]]

====Reasons for the voyages====
The Yongle Emperor sent Zheng He to the “Western oceans”, both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations. Zheng He's fleet manifested the prosperity ，the imperial power ，its advanced navigation technologies and exquisite ship-building techniques of China at that time , thus many small countries and bribes agreed to recognize China as their superior and its emperor as lord of “all under Heaven”.These countries and bribes regularly gave gifts of tribute in exchange for certain benefits ,like military posts, treaties and licence to trade.(Qian Zhiqian 2005,93)
During the voyages ,Zheng He's fleet did not act as a sea ruler, but appeared in peace all over the world, laden not only with goods exchanged with those countries, but also with the friendship of peoples.(Ye Lang 2008,120)
[[File:The Yongle Emperor.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Yongle Emperor]]
====The seven expeditions====
These expeditions were astonishing as much for their distance as for their size: during the first one, Zheng He traveled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India's southwest coast.The first expedition of this mighty armada was in 11th July of 1405, composed of 317ships and perhaps as many as sixty huge Treasure Ships and nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.The fleet stopped in Java and then arrived at Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka ).Compared to the first one, the second voyage(1407-1409) was smaller with only 68ships sending foreign envoys back home.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,38)

Zheng He led the third voyage (1409-1411) visiting many of the same countries as the first one did, like Champa and Java. When fighting broke out there between his forces and those of a small kingdom, Zheng put down the fighting, captured the king and brought him back to China where he was released by the emperor and then returned home duly impressed.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The fourth voyage (1413-15) extended the scope of the expeditions even further. This time in addition to visiting many of the same sites, Zheng He commandeered his 40 ships and over 28,000 men to Hormuz on the Persian Gulf. This trip has 48 ships with doctors , officials ,translators and more than 27000 troops .
The fifth voyage (1417-1419) was primarily a return trip for seventeen heads of state from South Asia. They had made their way to China after Zheng He's visits to their homelands in order to present their tribute at the Ming Court. (Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The sixth voyage began in 1421 and lasted for nearly two years.Then the expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.It sailed to many of the previously visited Southeast Asian and Indian courts and stops in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the coast of Africa, principally in order to return nineteen ambassadors to their homelands. Zheng He returned to China after less than a year, having sent his fleet onward to pursue several separate itineraries, with some ships going perhaps as far south as Sofala in present day Mozambique.(Baidu Encyclopedia Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans)

The seventh and final voyage (1431-33) was sent out by the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.This expedition had more than one hundred large ships and over 27,000 men, and it visited all the important ports in the South China Sea and Indian Ocean as well as Aden and Hormuz. One auxiliary voyage traveled up the Red Sea to Jidda, only a few hundred miles from the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. It was on the return trip in 1433 that Zheng He died and was buried at sea, although his official grave still stands in Nanjing, China. Nearly forgotten in China until recently, he was immortalized among Chinese communities abroad, particularly in Southeast Asia where to this day he is celebrated and revered as a god.(Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun 1983,43)
[[File:Route.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Route]]

====Terms and Expressions====
The Yongle emperor 永乐皇帝（明成祖）

Java 爪哇

Ceylon 锡兰（今斯里兰卡）

Champe 占城（印度支那古国）

Hormuz 霍尔木兹

The Persian Gulf 波斯湾

Medina 麦地那市（沙特阿拉伯西部城市）

Mecca 麦加（穆斯林圣地）

==== Questions====
1.What was Zheng He like?

2. Why did the Yongel Emperor sent the armada to the “Western oceans”?

3.How many people did Zheng He bring at the first voyage ,and what did these people do?

4.Why did the expeditions stopped during the 1423-1430?

5.The last trip was sented by?

===Answers===
1.Growing up to be a burly, imposing man, over six feet tall with a chest contemporaries said measured over five feet around, he was also extremely talented and intelligent.

2.Both to demonstrate the might of the Ming Empire and to realize the diplomatic ideal of peace and harmony among all nations.

3.He brought nearly 28000 men with thousands of soldiers , sailors ,diplomatic specialists ,medical personnel, astronomers and scholars.

4.The expeditions were halted due to the death of the Yongle emperor.

5.By the Yongle emperor's successor, his grandson the Xuande emperor.
===References===
Ye Lang 叶朗. 中国文化读本[A book of Chinese Culture][M].北京,2008,115-123.

Qian Zhiqian 钱志乾. 试论郑和下西洋的主要目的[On the purpose of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 江西社会科学,2005,(02):90-94.

Zhen Hesheng,Zhe Yijun郑鹤声 ,郑一钧. 郑和下西洋简论[A brief Introduction of Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans] [J]. 吉林大学社会科学学报,1983,(01):36-48.

[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和 [Zheng He]

[Baidu Encyclopedia]百度百科.郑和下西洋 [Zheng He's Voyages to the Western Oceans]

[English Encyclopedia]英语百科.郑和下西洋[Treasure Voyages]
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Literature, China's Four Great Classical Novels - Xie Fan 解帆 202070080637 MTI 英语口译==

===China's Four Great Classical Novels===

The Four Great Works of Chinese Classical Novels, abbreviated as the Four Great Works, are ''Water Margin'', ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'', ''Journey to the West'', and ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' (in the order of their completion).The Four Great Classical Novels are some of the classics of Chinese literature and they are considered part of the cultural heritage of the world. The status of these four masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature is difficult to distinguish with their high level of literature and artistic achievements. They are time-honored and unique among Chinese literature works, so that the stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. The meticulous portrayal and the profound thoughts contained in these four masterpieces have been praised by readers in history. They can be described as the four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.(Chen Wenxin 2019,24)

====Water Margin====

''Water Margin'', written by Shi Naian, is a novel based on an ancient peasant uprising. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising. (Sun Jiancheng 2008,167)

With the occurrence and development of peasant uprising as its main line, the book describes the whole process of development for grand peasant uprising troop. Individual awakening develops into the small-scale joint resistance with the experience of different heroes, showing an inexorable law of the feudal era, that is, peasants being forced to revolt by the officials, profoundly reflecting the Song dynasty's political condition and social contradictions. Standing on the side of the oppressed, the author praised the righteous acts of the leaders of the peasant uprising, who robbed the rich to the poor and exonerated and affirmed their revolutionary spirit of daring to rebel and struggle.(Liu Keqiang 2014,96)

====Romance of the Three Kingdoms====

''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' is a novel written by Luo Guanzhong, a novelist in the late Yuan and early Ming Dynasty. It is the first chapter novel , the first novel of historical romance, and also the first long literary novel in the history of Chinese literature. At the end of yuan dynasty and the beginning of Ming Dynasty, social contradictions were acute, peasant uprisings broke out one after another, and dynasties were divided. After years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang destroyed all the departed dynasties, overthrew the Yuan Dynasty, and established the Ming Dynasty. During the period when people were displaced, Luo Guanzhong, as a writer of zaju and stories, lived at the bottom of the society, understood and got familiar with the sufferings of the people, expected social stability and people to live and work in peace and contentment, thought as an intellectual at the bottom, and hoped to end the tragic situation caused by the turbulence. Therefore, he wrote the historical novel ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' on the history of the last years of the Eastern Han Dynasty. (Wang Zhiwu 2004,12)

''Romance of The Three Kingdoms'' describes the history of nearly a hundred years from the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to the beginning of the Western Jin Dynasty. It mainly describes wars and tells the story of the warring states of the eastern Han Dynasty and the political and military struggles among The Three Kingdoms, namely, Wei, Shu and Wu. Finally, Sima Yan unified The Three Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty. Besides, it reflects the transformation of various social struggle and contradictions in The Three Kingdoms period, summarizes the historical changes of this era, and shapes a group of powerful heroes of The Three Kingdoms period. (Zhang Zhihe 2000,32)

====Journey to the West====

''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China, and its author is WuChenen in the Ming Dynasty. The book mainly tells a story, after the birth and havoc in heaven, Su Wukong met Tang Monk, White Dragon Horse, Zhu Bajie and Sand monk, started their journey to the West, went through 81 hardships and dangers, demons and monsters, finally arrived in the West to see the Buddha. (Chen Dakang 2000,16)

The novel is based on the historical event of Tang Monk going to study scriptures, and through the author's artistic processing, it profoundly depicts the social reality of The Ming Dynasty. The uproar in heaven in the novel reflects the resistance of the Chinese people in the feudal society through the form of fairy tales. Of course, fantasy novels reflect reality with their own characteristics, different from the general direct reflection of real life literature. The rebelin heaven erected the banner of "Monkey King", and put forward the slogan, "emperor take turns, and next is my turn" , hundreds of troops escaped, the heaven started to collapse, so that the jade emperor had to ask for external help. The plot of the fiction and fantasy based on reality of peasant uprising and peasant war. If there had not been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history, the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" could not have been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel could not have been so brilliant. (Chen Dakang 2000,17)

====Dream of the Red Chamber====

''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works. (Hu Jingzhu 2019,33)

''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was born at the end of feudal China in the 18th century. At that time, the Qing Government was closed to the outside world and the whole country was immersed in the dream of the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age and the Middle Kingdom. On the surface, the period seemed stable and peaceful, but actually all kinds of social contradictions were intensifying and developing, and the whole dynasty had reached a turning point of prosperity and decline. (Liu Mengxi 1984,41)

===Terms and Expressions===

农民起义 peasant uprising

孙悟空 Monkey King

大闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven

康乾盛世 the Kang-Qian Flourishing Age

天朝上国 the Middle Kingdom

===Questions===

1. What is the influence and status of Chinese Four Great Classical Novels?

2. What dose ''Water Margin'' mainly show?

3. Is ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' the first romanticism chapter novel in China? Which book is the first chapter novel in China?

4. Why has the plot of "Havoc in Heaven" been so bold and the image of Sun Wukong as a rebel been so brilliant?

4. What do you know about ''Dream of the Red Chamber''?

===Answers===

1. The stories, scenes and characters in these masterpieces have deeply influenced the thoughts and values of the Chinese people. They can be described as four great monuments in the history of Chinese literature.

2. It vividly depicts the whole process from the occurrence, development and failure of the peasant uprising, profoundly reveals the social roots of the uprising, enthusiastically eulogues the resistance struggle of the 'heroes' of the uprising and their social ideals, and specifically reveals the internal historical reasons for the failure of the uprising.

3. No, ''Journey to the West'' is the first romanticism chapter novel in China while ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is the first chapter novel in China.

4. Because there had been many large-scale peasant uprisings and peasant wars that violently impacted the feudal dynasties in history.

4. ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was written by Cao Xueqin, a well-known writer in the Qing Dynasty. With the rise and fall of Jia, Shi, Wang as its background, with the love marriage tragedy of Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu, and Xue Baochai as its main line, in the perspective of rich childe Jia Baoyu, the book shows the tragic beauty, and female beauty from different angles and the phase of the ancient Chinese society of epic works.

===References===

*Chen Dakang陈大康.(2000).《西游记》主题说的百年变迁：兼论“主题”概念的理论意义.[The Change of Theme during Hundreds of Years in ''Journey to the West'' - Discussion on the Theoretical Significance of the Theme].华东师范大学学报Journal of East China Normal University

*Chen Wenxin陈文新.(2019).中国文化视野中的“四大名著”.["The Four Great Classical Novels" from the Perspective of Chinese Culture].文化软实力研究Studies On Cultural Soft Power

*Hu Jingzhu胡静姝.(2019).《梦幻与现实的较量——浅析 < 红楼梦 > 中梦的美学意蕴》.[The Contest between Dream and Reality - A Brief Analysis of the Aesthetic Implication of ''Dream of the Red Chamber''].《汉字文化》The Culture of Chinese Characters

*Liu Keqiang刘克强.(2014).《水浒传》翻译大辞典.[The Translated Dictionary of ''Water Margin''].北京：中央编译出版社Beijing:Central Compilation Translation Press

*Liu Mengxi刘梦溪.(1984).红学三十年论文选编．[Selected Papers of Studies of Dream of the Red Chamber in the Past Three Decades].天津: 百花文艺出版社Tianjin:Baihua Literature and Art Publishing House

*Sun Jiancheng 孙建成.(2008).《水浒传》英译的语言与文化.[The Language and Culture of English Translation of ''Water Margin''].上海：复旦大学出版社Shanghai:Fudan University Press

*Wang Zhiwu王志武.(2004).《三国演义》的人物、结构和主题.[The Characters, Structure and Theme of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].西北农林科技大学学报Journal of Northwest A&F University

*Zhang Zhihe张志和.(2000).《三国演义》思想意蕴试论.[Discussion on the Ideological Implication of ''Romance of The Three Kingdoms''].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University

--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Four Folk Stories of Ancient China，Xu Jia 徐佳 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==

Cowherd and Weaving Girl, Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall, the Story of the White Snake and Butterfly Lovers are the four major folk love stories in ancient China. As the most charming oral traditions and national intangible cultural heritage in China, the earliest of them has been popular for more than 2000 years, having a profound impact on people’s lives.

1. Cowherd and Weaving Girl

2. Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall

3. The Story of the White Snake

4. Butterfly Lovers

====Cowherd and Weaving Girl====

It is said that the story took place in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Cowherd was an artless and honest young man living in the Xiniu village of Nanyang city. Since his parents died early, he lived a miserable life with an old ox. One day, Weaving Girl, the daughter of the God of Heaven, came down with other fairies from heaven and took a bathe in a river near Cowherd’s house. The old ox told the Cowherd to steal her clothes so that she was unable to return to the heaven and would stay here to be his wife.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)

With the help of the old ox, Weaving Girl married Cowherd and soon they had a son and a daughter. They led a happy life with husband laboring in the field and wife weaving at home. But their marriage didn't last long. It was discovered by the Queen Mother and incurred her wrath. Ignoring tearful Cowherd and two crying children, she broke up the couple and brought Weaving Girl back. It was the old ox that helped him again. It told Cowherd that it would die tonight and he needed to make three pair of shoes with its skin, which could help him go to heaven and find his wife. Cowherd followed. Just as the cowherd was about to catch up with them, however, the Queen Mother took off her golden hairpin and separate them by a large river, which is now called the Milky Way. Hopelessly, the two lovers can only look at each other across the river.（Zhong Xiaoting 2020,92)

Fortunately, touched by their love，hundreds of thousands of magpies flied and formed a bridge over the river. Finally the Queen Mother showed a little mercy, allowing them to meet once a year on the magpie bridge. The day was the seventh day of the seventh lunar month, which later has become the Chinese Valentine’s Day.(Zhao Kuifu 1990,61)

====Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall====

During the reign of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty, Fan Xilang, a young man living in the surrounding area of Mengjiang mountain in Lizhou County, Hunan Province, had just finished the hard labor and returned to his hometown to get married. But unfortunately, on the night of their wedding, Fan Xilang was sent to the north to build the Great Wall. He toiled away with hunger, cold and fatigue, and soon met a miserable death at the end of his efforts. His body was buried under the Great Wall. （Yao Kangkang 2020,77)

Meng Jiangnu, Fan’s new wife, got the bad news and went through all kinds of hardships to reach the Great Wall. She cried bitterly there for three days and three nights, and finally cried down the Great Wall and found her husband's remains. On her way to take him home, she suffered a lot and finally died of hunger and thirst in Tongguan County, Shaanxi Province. Sympathetic with the couple’s miserable experience and deeply moved by Meng’s spirits, the local people buried their remains and set up ancestral temples to commemorate them.(Huang Ruiqi 2003)

====The Story of the White Snake====

Created in the Southern Song Dynasty and prevailed in the Qing Dynasty, the Story of the White Snake is a model of Chinese folk collective creation. In the book Stories to Warn Man compiled by Feng Menglong, The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda has been acknowledged as the first version of this story.

After thousands of years of practice in Emei Mountain, two snake named Bai Suzhen and Xiaoqing translated into two beautiful girls and came to visit Hangzhou. After encountering with a young man named Xu Xian in the rain, Bai Suzhen fell in love with him and soon later they get married. But a monk called Fahai saw through Bai’s disguise and thought that it was an intrigue of the white snake to marry a man. He persuaded Xu Xian to intoxicate his wife with realgar wine on the Dragon Boat Festival. After being drunk, Bai Suzhen couldn’t control herself and showed the shape of a snake, which scared Xu Xian to death. Regardless of her own safety, Bai Suzhen went through many difficulties and got the magical grass, which finally brought Xu Xian back to life.（Zhou Xia 2020）

But Fahai did not give up. He then lured Xu Xian to the Jinshan Temple to separate the couple. Bai Suzhen and Xiao Qing had no choice but to inundate the temple with flood. During the fierce battle, Bai was finally defeated and put into a small bowl under the Leifeng Pagoda.(Wang Yibing 1999)

====Butterfly Lovers====

During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Zhu Yingtai, a beautiful and intelligent girl born in a rich family in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province, wanted to go to Hangzhou to study for there was no good teacher at home. Her father, seeing her eagerness to learn and her ability to disguise herself as a man, finally agreed to her request. On the way to Hangzhou, Zhu Yingtai met Liang Shanbo, a young man who had the same destination with her. He was sincere, gentle and knowledgeable and they clicked immediately. During the school years, they often talked about poetry and articles, cared for each other, and slept in the same bed at night. Zhu had gradually fallen in love with Liang, who, though did not know she was a girl, also cherished her and saw her as his best friend.（Lin Liangliang 2020, 57)

Three years passed quickly. The moment when they had to part, Zhu constantly gave delicate indications to Liang that she was a girl and she loved him, but Liang failed to take her hint. Zhu had no choice but to lied to Liang that she had a little sister who was similar to her in appearance and learning and she wondered if Liang was willing to marry her. Liang Shanbo readily consented and promised that he would come to visit soon. A months later, Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home and he was surprised to see Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl. Only then did he know the truth and figured all the things out. They then confessed their love to each other and pledged to marry without the permission of parents. （Lin Liangliang 2020, 58)

But unfortunately, Zhu’s parents didn’t think much of this poor young man. They wanted to marry their daughter to Ma Wencai, the son of the local governor. Zhu Yingtai was unwilling to marry him but her protest was in vain, for her family was in financial crisis and needed Ma’s support. Hopelessly, the two young lovers was forced to part in tears. Since then, Liang slid into a depression. His spirit and health were soon crushed, and he died a few months later. On the wedding day, Zhu asked for a detour to pass by Liang 's tomb so that she could say goodbye to him. Wearing a bright red wedding dress, she knelt in front of his grave and cried bitterly. At that moment, lighting flashed, thunder rolled and the sky went dark. Liang's tomb suddenly cracked open and Ying-tai immediately jumped into it before it closed. Then under the shocked eyes of the onlookers, a pair of beautiful butterflies flied out of the graves and dancing in the sunlight. It is believed that these two butterflies are Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. They finally get rid of all the shackles and bounds and can stay together forever.(Jin Huiling 2007)

Having been adapted into many films and TV plays, these four stories are well-known in China and the rest of the world. As the crystallization of folk culture, they not only represent the rich imagination of ancient Chinese people, but also show their hatred for evil forces and their pursuit for a free and happy life, which is exactly the positive part of folk literature.

===Terms and Expressions===

Cowherd and Weaving Girl 牛郎织女

Meng Jiangnu Crying on the Great Wall 孟姜女哭长城

Butterfly Lovers 梁山伯与祝英台

the Queen Mother 王母娘娘

Stories to Warn Man 《警世通言》

The White Snake under the Leifeng Pagoda 《白娘子永镇雷峰塔》

===Questions===

1.What led to the death of Meng Jiangnu’s husband?

2.What did Xu Xian give Bai Suzhen to drink that made her reveal her snake form?

3.What did the Cowherd do to make Weaving Girl stay?

4.When did Liang Shanbo realize that Zhu Yingtai is actually a girl?

5.Why did Zhu Yingtai lie to Liang Shanbo that she has a little sister?

===Answers===

1.He was sent to build the Great Wall and died for hunger,cold and fatigue.

2.Realgar wine

3.He stole her clothes while she was taking a shower.

4.The first time Liang Shanbo went to Zhu's home,where he saw Zhu Yingtai dressed up as a girl.

5.The little sister she referred to is actually herself,and in this way she hinted at her love to Liang Shanbo.

===References===

Jin Huiling. Qin Yinan. (2007). 爱支撑的文化天堂——《罗密欧与朱丽叶》和《梁山伯与祝英台》[A Cultural Paradise Supported by Love - Romeo and Juliet and Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai] 社会科学论坛：学术研究卷Social Science Forum: Academic Research Volume(5):194-197.

Wang Yibing. (1999). 白蛇传故事的文化意蕴[The Cultural Implications of the Story of the White Snake].廊坊师专学报 Journal of Langfang Teachers College(4):12-18.

Huang Ruiqi. (2003). 孟姜女故事研究[A Study of the Story of Meng Jiang Nu] 北京：中国人民大学出版社. Beijing: People's University of China Press.

Zhao Kuifu. (1990). 论牛郎织女故事的产生与主题[On the Generation and Theme of the Story of the Cowherd and the Weaver]. 西北师大学报. Northwest Normal University Journal(4):56-63.

Zhong Xiaoting.(2020). 牛郎织女故事漫谈三则Three Rambling Stories of the Cowherd and the Weaving Maiden].美与时代. Beauty and the Times(10);92-94.

Yao Kangkang.(2020). 镇原送寒衣的风俗和孟姜女的传说[The Custom of Sending Cold Clothes to Zhen Yuan and the Legend of Meng Jiang Nu].甘肃政协.Journal of Gansu Political Consultative Committee:77-79.

Zhou Xia.(2020).《白蛇转》：白娘子的前世今生.[The White Snake: The Past Life of Bai Niang Zi].中国电影报.China Film News.

Lin Liangliang. (2020).梁祝传说中的原型及其内涵阐发.The Archetype and Its Connotation in the Legend of Liang Zhu. 名作欣赏. Masterpiece Appreciation(10):56-60.

--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Architecture, Four Great Pavilions-Xu Jing 许静 202070080614 MTI英语笔译==
===Four Great Pavilions===
A pavilion, a building style with great Chinese characteristics, is not only a place for passers-by to rest their feet, but also an important landscape building with garden art. At the foot of the mountains, by the lakeside and deep in the forest, we can always see pavilions that are half-hidden, and half-exposed, subtly adding colour to the landscape scenery. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

Where there are pavilions, there are stories, and there are four famous pavilions in China - the Old Drunkard Pavilion in Chuzhou, the Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing, the Ai Wan Pavilion in Changsha and the Hu Xin Pavilion in Hangzhou. All of them are famous for their poems and articles written by ancient writers and scholars. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

====The Old Drunkard Pavilion====

Zuiweng Ting, or the Old Drunkard Pavilion is located at the foot of the Langya Mountain in Chuzhou, Anhui Province. The Old Drunkard Pavilion was built in 1046 AD, the sixth year of the Northern Song Dynasty's reign of Emperor Renzong. This pavilion is the subject of a well-known work written by Ouyang Xiu, an essayist of the Song dynasty, called The Story of the Old Drunkard. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to serve as the prefect. Feeling indignant at the time, he devoted his soul into nature. He often came with friends and guests to Langya Mountain for fun, or to Langya Temple to drink wine and express their emotion. In order to give Ouyang Xiu a rest and a drink, the Langya Monastery monk Zhisian built this pavilion halfway up the mountain. The pavilion was named 'the Old Drunkard Pavilion' by Ouyang Xiu, who called himself “ the Old Drunkard”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

The pavilion has a compact layout with small, unique pavilions that are characteristic of the gardens of the south of the Yangtze River, and although the total area of the pavilion is less than 1,000 square metres, there are nine buildings——the Old Drunkard Pavilion, Bao Song Zhai, Feng Gong Ancestral Hall, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, Shadow Fragrance Pavilion, Yi Zai Pavilion, Fear Pavilion, Ancient Plum Blossom Pavilion, and the View Terrace——of different styles, and are known as the “Nine Views of the Old Grunkard Pavilion”. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

Although the Old Drunkard pavilion has been plundered many times over the centuries, it still inviting to people. Today, the thousand-year old scenery here is even more spectacular and alluring. (Liu Xuan 2012, 21)

====Tao Ran Pavilion====

The Tao Ran Pavilion in Beijing was built in 1695, the 34th year of Emperor Kangxi's reign in the Qing dynasty, by Jiang Zao, who then served in the Ministry of Public Works. Jiang Zao named the pavilion after Bai Juyi's poem, "Waiting for the chrysanthemum to ripen, we get drunk in blitheness". This small pavilion is quite popular among ancient writers. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

The modern Taoran Pavilion is a new modern urban garden that integrates ancient architecture and modern gardening art, highlighting the Chinese national pavilion culture as its main content. In the garden, there are verdant trees, lush flowers and grasses, jagged buildings and pavilions. On the Mid-lake Island, there are Jinqiu dun, Swallow Head Hill, and Tao Ran pavilion into a tripod. On top of Jinqiu dun there is Jinqiu pavilion, the site of which was the site of the Flower Fairy Shrine. At the southern foot of the pavilion, there is Rose Hill, which is the site of the original incense mound, the parrot mound and the tomb of the golden flower. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

In the quiet pine forest at the foot of the northern pavilion, there are the tombs of Gao Junyu and Shi Pingmei, which are famous. At the top of Swallow Head Hill, there is the Green View Pavilion, which is opposite the Jinqiu Pavilion, and at the southwest of the pavilion, there is the Chengguang Pavilion, which is the most suitable place to look at the lake and the mountains. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

====Ai Wan Pavilion====

The Ai Wan Pavilion is located in the Qingfeng Gorge at the foot of Mount Yuelu in Hunan Province, and is surrounded by mountains on three sides. The pavilion was built in 1792 by Luo Dian(罗典), Dean of the Yuelu Academy, and was originally called the Red Leaf Pavilion. It was later renamed by Bi Yuan(毕沅), Governor of Hunan and Guangzhou Province, based on a poem by Du Mu(杜牧), a poet of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, "The stone paths of the cold mountains are steep, and there are homes in the depths of the white clouds. Sitting on the Maple Forest in the evening, the frost leaves turn red in the February flowers" ("Mountain Journey"). (Qian Long 2009, 50)

After many major repairs in the reign of Tongzhi, Guangxu, Xuantong, and in Republic of China and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, it comes into its pattern today. The shape of the pavilion is eight columns with heavy eaves, glazed glass and blue tiles, the corner of the pavilion is flying, and it looks like flying from a distance. The inside is pillar in lacquer while the outside are four stone pillars made by granite. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

Apart from painted caisson ceiling, there are gilt lettering "Ai Wan Pavilion" on a red background on the east and west sides of the pavilion, which was made by handwriting written by Mao Zedong, at the request of Li Da, the then president of Hunan University. The pavilion is surrounded by hills on three sides, and is open to the east, with a flat vertical and horizontal space of more than 33 metres, with purple and lush greenery and uninterrupted flowing springs. There is a pond in front of the pavilion, with rows of peach and willow trees. There are maple trees all around, with red leaves all over the mountains in late autumn. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

====Hu Xin Pavilion====

Hu Xin Pavilion, or Mid-lake Pavilion is situated in the centre of the West Lake in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Initially known as "Zhenlu Pavilion", and "Qingxi Pavilion", it was built in the 31st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (1552 AD) and was renamed “Hu Xin Pavilion” after the Ming Dynasty. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

The pavilion is built looking like a tower and is surrounded by water on all sides. When you look around, not only does the lake ripple, but also the mountains stand like a screen enveloping it. The west side of the pavilion is the south and north peaks of the West Lake, which is very spectacular. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

It is one of the 18 scenes of West Lake in Qing Dynasty. Yongzheng wrote in his Records of the West Lake: the pavilion is in the centre of the lake; in the past there was a temple and outside it were three towers, which both were destroyed in the reign of Ming Xiaozong. County said: outside the temple were three towers, while only the north tower conserved, upon which a pavilion was built, that is the Mid-lake Pavilion; the old base of the temple was rebuilt as De Sheng Hall, a place to release. According to this, the old Hu Xin Temple was the current Release Pond, and the present Hu Xin Pavilion was the base of the north tower among the other three. (Chang Yi 2007, 60)

The Qing emperor Qianlong once inscribed a plaque on the pavilion with the inscription "Quietly observe the world"(“静观万类”) and the couplet "Waves surge and the lake is far away, the mountains prompt the water is deep"(“波涌湖光远，山催水色深”). Besides, the inscription on the pavilion's pillars by Hu Laichao(胡来朝) is worth mentioning: “The four seasons are filled with music and songs, and the poor are still grieving over the moon; the six bridges are filled with flowers and willows, and there is no room for mulberry and hemp.” The meaning is even more profound to the visitor. (Qian Long 2009, 50)

===Terms and Expressions===

The Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁亭

Nine Views of the Old Drunkard Pavilion 醉翁九景

Tao Ran Pavilion 陶然亭

glazed glass and blue tiles 琉璃碧瓦

Ai Wan Pavilion 爱晚亭

Mountain Journey 《山行》

Hu Xin Pavilion/ Mid-lake Pavilion 湖心亭

County 《县志》

===Questions===

1. Which pavilion is named by the poem of Du Mu？

2. When Did “Hu Xin Pavilion” well established its name?

3. Which pavilion is located in Beijing?

4. Where can we enjoy maple trees in Autumn among the four pavilions?

5. What do you think is the Old Drunkard Pavilion famous for?

===Answers===
1. Ai Wan Pavilion.

2. After the Ming Dynasty.

3. Tao Ran Pavilion.

4. Ai Wan Pavilion.

5. It is said that Ouyang Xiu was demoted to Chuzhou to do the imperial guard and the Old Drunkard Pavilion was built for him and named after him.

===References===
*千龙.中国四大名亭[J].兵团建设,2009(14):50.

*刘璇.醉翁亭以中国“四大”名亭之一天下第一亭大文学家欧阳修《醉翁亭记》名声享誉中华[J].中国地名,2012(09):20-21.

*常翼.我国的四大名亭[J].新长征,2007(06):60.

*https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/slU9b2notV9xKekROxCZuw

*https://baike.so.com/doc/6569739-6783501.html

*https://baike.so.com/doc/5632595-5845219.html

--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Architecture, Three Great Towers in China, Yang chenting 杨晨婷 No.202070080615 MTI 英语笔译==

===Three Great Towers in China===

1. Yellow Crane Tower

2. Yueyang Tower

3.The Pavilion of Prince Teng

Three great towers in China are Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province; Yueyang Tower in Yueyang, Hunan Province; and the Pavilion of Prince Teng in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. As representatives of traditional Chinese architecture, they are the symbols of splendid culture for over five thousand years.

====Yellow Crane Tower====

The tower today we see in Wuhan is not the original building, and it has a very long and complicated history. Yellow Crane Tower, built in 223 during the Three Kingdoms period (220-280), was embodied with a perfect location. Because of this, the king of Wu, Sun Quan, held it as a watchtower for his troops. For hundreds of years, its military function has gradually been forgotten, which now mainly serves as a scenic spot, attracting millions of tourists at home and abroad. （Chen Xiansong 2018,08）

During the Tang Dynasty, many popular poets, like Cui Hao, Li Bai, and Bai Juyi wrote poems to praise Yellow Crane Tower. It can be said that due to their description and admiration of the tower, it became renowned and made people want to pay a visit. In the following centuries, unfortunately, it was destroyed and rebuilt several times. In the Ming and Qing dynasties alone, the tower was destroyed seven times and rebuilt seven times. In 1884, because of fire, it was completely destroyed and was not rebuilt until 1981. Now, it stands on the banks of the Yangtze River at the top of Snake Hill. (Zhang Chi 2002,02)

Different dynasties have greatly influenced the architectural features of it. However, the one we see today is a one rebuilt in Qing Dynasty. It is 51.4 meters (168 feet) tall, with five floors, which looks the same from any direction. The roof is covered by 100,000 yellow glazed tiles. With the tiles on the top, the design of each floor seems to resemble a yellow crane ready to fly. (English for tour guides 2017)[[File:Yellow Crane Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yellow Crane Tower]]

====Yueyang Tower====

Yueyang Tower is located at the western gate of Yueyang Ancient City, Hunan Province, overlooking Lake Dongting from its perch on the eastern shore of the lake. On the opposite side of Yueyang Tower flows the mighty Yangtze River. Therefore, it’s no doubt that its military function was important.

In 716, with the governance of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, Yueyang Tower was reconstructed. Its beauty and its good place overlooking Lake Dongting made it receive a lot of literary praise. For example, in 1045, the governor of Ba Ling County, Teng Zijing, invited his friends, including one familiar with us—Fan Zhongyan, to write an essay in honor of the newly-reconstructed Yueyang Tower. (Gong Qijian 2012,13)

The current 20-meter-high pavilion with its four pillars made of rot-resistant nanmu trees, its three storeys with upturned eaves and its unique construction method stems from a major reconstruction in 1867, during the Qing Dynasty. There are two other pavilions, Sanzui Pavilion and Xianmei Pavilion, on either side of Yueyang Tower. And to the north of Yueyang Tower lies the tomb of Xiaoqiao, the wife of Zhou Yu, the famous military advisor in the Three Kingdoms Period. The splendid scenery of Yueyang Tower attracted the attention of many renowned poets of the Tang Dynasty, such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi and Li Shangyin, who wrote poems to paise it after paying a visit there. These works are preserved and cherished, and are on display in the Corridor of Poems and Calligraphy at Yueyang Tower. Thanks to those poets, they made Yueyang Tower keeps attracting people all the time. （Xiong Shengyuan 2015,06）

Yueyang Tower has long enjoyed the title of being the “First Tower under Heaven”, while Lake Dongting, near it, enjoys the reputation of being known as the “First Water under Heaven”. （Chinese scenery 2010）[[File:Yueyang Tower.jpg|500px|thumb|right|Yueyang Tower]]

====The Pavilion of Prince Teng====

Tengwang Pavilion, located in the northwest of Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is an imperial building constructed more than 1,300 years ago. It was built in 659 by Li Yuanying, the son of the first emperor of Tang Dynasty and the brother of Li Shimin. Because of missing his hometown—Tengzhou, he built this pavilion. The pavilion was named “Tengwangge” after Yuanying, who was crowned “Prince of Teng” during the Zhenguan reign. Along with the Yellow Crane Tower in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and Yueyang Pavilion in Yueyang, Hunan Province, the pavilion of Prince Teng is famous as the “Three Great Pavilions” in China.（Xie Jianlin 2018,11）

What is rare to see in Chinese history is that the Pavilion of Prince Teng was destroyed and rebuilt 29 times, the same fate as Yellow Crane Tower. In January 2001, the Pavilion was named as one of the first batch of national 4A level tourist attractions and was approved as a national key scenic spot by the State Council of China in 2004. (Yin Minghui 2018,04)

For thousands of years, the Pavilion of Prince Teng, with its beautiful scenery and its abundant culture, has been an ideal place for writers and poets to create works. For thousands of years, many artists, poets and writers have paid a visit to this pavilion to get some inspiration for their works.

The Pavilion of Prince Teng has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people. The cultural stories that have been passed down reflect people’s good wishes for good things, but also reveal the easy-going nature of the local people. Nanchang locals may not be aware of their attachment to the pavilion except when they are in a foreign land. It is at such times that they are able to feel their own cultural heritage and nostalgia for the pavilion. (Today China 2018)

[[File:The Pavilion of Prince Teng.jpg|500px|thumb|right|The Pavilion of Prince Teng]]

====Terms and Expressions====

Watchtower n. 瞭望塔

The Three King Periods 三国时期

Yangtze River 长江

Upturned eave 飞檐

4A level tourist attractions 4A级旅游景区

State Council of China 中国国务院

Nostalgia n. 怀旧

Storey n. 层

Glazed tile 琉璃瓦

====Questions====

1. What are the three great towers in China?

2. What's the function of the Yellow Crane Tower at the very beginning?

3. What's the cause of the Yellow Crane Tower’s completely destroying?

4. Where can tourists appreciate the beautiful scenery of Lake Dongting?

5. What does the Pavilion of Prince Teng mean to local people?

====Answers====

1. The three great towers are Yellow Crane Tower, Yueyang Tower, and the Pavilion of Prince Teng.

2. It served as a watchtower, i.e., military function.

3. It was because of the fire, which burned it down.

4. Tourists can appreciate the scenery from Yueyang Tower.

5. It has always been an auspicious building for Nanchang people and the story about it reflected people’s good wishes for good things.

====References====

Fang Wenhua 方华文. (2010). ''中国名山名水''[Chinese Scenery]. Anhui: Science and Technology Press 安徽科学技术出版社.

Qiu Huijun邱慧钧. (2002). 江南三大名楼[Three great towers in China]. ''风景名胜''Travel(01).

Wu Zhijun吴志军. (2008).江南三大名楼旅游形象测量与比较[The comparison of the image of three great towers]. ''江西财经大学学报''Journal of Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics (04).

Zhang Ju 张炬. (2017). ''导游英语''[Tourist Guide English]. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology北京理工大学.

Zheng Zhangmin 郑张敏. (2011). 关于中华古建筑专用名词翻译风格的思考.[A consideration on the translation of the name of Chinese ancient buildings] ''北京建筑工程学院学报''Journal of Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture (04) 72-75.

--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 12:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Tourism, Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties Yang Hairong 杨海容, 202070080616, MTI 英语笔译==

<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616</center>

===Nanjing-An Ancient Capital of Six Dynasties===

===A. Geographical Location, Economy and Military Defence===

Nanjing was also called Jinling, Moling, Jianye and Jiankang in ancient times. In the first year of Huanglong in the Eastern Wu Dynasty (229 years), Emperor Wu, Sun Quan, established the capital here, and the rise of Nanjing since then made China's political center out of the pattern of the Yellow River cultural plate, leading the development of the Yangtze River Basin and the entire southern region of China. Since then, the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties successively established their capitals here, so Nanjing is known as the "Ancient Capital of the Six Dynasties". Nanjing City in the Six Dynasties has an important position in the history of China's capital city development. (Lu Haiming，2002)

''Feng Shui'' (风水) in Nanjing stands out. According to Feng Shui theory, the base site of Yang House (city, village, housing, yin house refers to tomb) is best to choose a place where ''Yin'' (阴) and ''Yang'' (阳) are embraced, meaning that there is a main mountain behind the base site; There is a crescent-shaped pond or river in front, and there is a mountain on the opposite side of the pond or river, and there is a super mountain on the opposite side of the mountain. (Lu Haiming，2002)

The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is "a green dragon" on the left and "a white tiger" on the right. A Zhongshan Mountain on the left is "the green dragon", and a stone mountain on the right is "the white tiger". On the opposite, there is the Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City (Sun Wu and Dong Jin dynasties called Beihu or Houhu Lake, and the name was changed by the Liu Song Dynasty). (Lu Haiming，2002)

During the Six Dynasties, Yangzhou was regarded as the economic center of the south, and the Sanwu area was the center of gravity. Sun Wu decided to make Nanjing in the early stage of material transportation. Later, a man-made canal was dug to open the waterway between Sanwu and Nanjing. As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing's status as the capital is consolidated. (Lu Haiming，2002)

The Six Dynasties coexisted with the northern regimes for a long time and had the protective effect of the Yangtze River. However, the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench. The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River. In addition, there are some important military towns. (Lu Haiming，2002)

====Terms and Expressions====

''Feng Shui'' theory 风水学

Yang House 阳宅

Yin House 阴宅

The main mountain 主山

Xuanwu Lake玄武湖

man-made canal 人工运河

Six Dynasties 六朝

Qinhuai River 秦淮河

the first line of defense 第一防线

trench 天堑

====Questions====

1.Why Feng Shui in Nanjing stands out?

2.During the Six Dynasties, which city was the economic center of the south?

3.What contributions does the man-made canal built between Sanwu and Nanjing make?

4.What kind of role does the Yangtze River play in protection?

5. What were Nanjing's natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties?

====Answers====

1.The main mountain of Nanjing is Jilong Mountain and Fuzhou Mountain; there is like a green dragon on the left, a white tiger on the right, a Zhongshan Mountain on the left is a green dragon, and a stone mountain on the right is the white tiger. On the opposite side, there is Chaoshan Mountain named Niushou Mountain, and Xuanwu Lake behind Nanjing City.

2.Yangzhou.

3.As a result, Sanwu's materials no longer need to detour through the Yangtze River, and Nanjing’s status as the capital of the country is consolidated.

4.the Yangtze River was not the first line of defense but the last trench.

5.The natural peripheral military defense line of the Six Dynasties was between the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, including the Yellow River, Qinhuai River and Yangtze River.

===B. Nature and Humanities===

The so-called "beauty" refers to the natural environment and cultural landscape in Nanjing. "Jiangnan is a beautiful land and an emperor state", which is a description of Nanjing. Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty". There are not only beautiful natural sceneries, but also many historical monuments; there are ancient buildings and a large number of modern facilities, so it has become a famous tourist attraction at home and abroad. There are as many as 154 places of historical interests listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The natural and cultural landscape here not only reveals the beauty of the south of the Yangtze River, but also maintains the majesty of the North. In Nanjing, the masculine and feminine complement each other. The strong impact of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River basin makes Nanjing unparalleled and embodies the beauty of the blending of north and south. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc. The folk customs of Nanjing are sincere and have a long history. "Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs. (Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

Nanjing embraces abundant cultures, and is integrated into folk customs; folk customs have enriched cultures, and Nanjing's folk entertainments are full of rich cultural connotations. The traditional folk entertainments including dragon lantern dance, the Huatai Festival, social fire in Lishui area, Fangshan drum in Jiangning area, hand lion dance in Jiangpu area and so on. These entertainments seem simple, but they are deeply loved by local people. Moreover, people live in Naning will have these traditional customs including climbing the Zijin Mountain, eating black rice, holding Jinling Lantern Festival and so on.(Zhu Yaoting, 2003)

====Terms and Expressions====

Lantern Festival Lantern Festival 元宵节

Tomb-sweeping Outing 清明节

Dragon Boat Festival 端午节

Mid-Autumn Festival 中秋节

Chongyang Festival 重阳节

Laba Festival porridge 腊八节

God of Wealth 财神

dragon lantern dance 舞龙灯

Fangshan drum 方山大鼓

the Huatai Festival 花台会

black rice 乌饭

historical interests 名胜古迹

====Questions====

1.How to describe Nanjing?

2.How many places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units in Nanjing?

3.What are main folklore activities in Nanjing?

4.What is the essence of Nanjing folk customs?

5.People who live in Jiangning area of Nanjing like what kind of folk entertainment?

====Answer====

1.Nanjing is known as the metaphor of "the golden powder of the Six Dynasties is the best in the world", and there is also the tale of "Qinhuai and the blue waves reflect the beauty".

2.There are as many as 154 places of historical interest listed as national, provincial and municipal cultural relics protection units.

3.The main folklore activities in Nanjing include Lantern Festival Lantern Festival, Tomb-sweeping Outing, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang Festival, Laba Festival porridge, New Year welcoming God of Wealth, etc.

4."Fancy but not slick" is the essence of Nanjing folk customs.

5.Fangshan drum.

===C. The Lantern Festival in Nanjing===

The fifteenth day of the first lunar month is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year. The Lantern Festival started as a sacrificial offering and gradually became a grand and enthusiastic entertainment festival. In ancient times, the Lantern Festival included one day. In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days; In Song Dynasty, it was 14th to 18th which involved five days; In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days, that is, from 8th to 17th of the first month in the lunar calendar, and on 18th the lantern lights turned off. The food has also changed from eating bean porridge to tasting glutinous rice balls (汤圆). (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

[[File:The Confucius Temple.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Confucius Temple]]

During Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a custom of playing dragon lanterns and hanging gauze lanterns. Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers. The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people. Yarn lanterns have satin silk fabrics, and there are celebrities painting on them, the more painting by the masters, the higher the value. Merchants will also hold lantern riddles activities in front of the store, attracting many tourists, and those who guess the prize will be rewarded. (Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

There is a lantern shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses. British scholar Needham called it an invention of ancient Chinese people. The dragon lanterns are majestic, the gauze lanterns are exquisite, colorful, and vigorous, attracting the long dwelling and entertaining guests out of the city, singing and laughing. In recent decades, the Lantern Festival at the Confucius Temple has become more and more prosperous, using new technology, new materials, sound and light control, and it is colorful, vivid and dazzling. The lantern festival will last for one month starting from the Spring Festival. During this period, it attracted as many as two or three million tourists from all over the world every day.(Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture,2015)

====Terms and Expressions====

the first month in the lunar calendar 正月

glutinous rice balls 汤圆

satin silk fabrics 楮练纱帛

Yarn lanterns 纱灯

lantern riddles activities 猜灯谜

the Confucius Temple 夫子庙

====Questions====

1.Which day is the night of the first full moon in the lunar calendar year?

2.In Tang Dynasty, what time is the Lantern Festival?

3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, how many days did the Lantern Festival extend to?

4.What kinds of people like playing Dragon Lantern?

5.What is the length of the lantern in Nanjing?

6.What are characteristics of a lantern-shaped in horse?

7.What did Needham call as an invention of ancient Chinese people in Nanjing?

====Answers====

1.The fifteenth day of the first lunar month.

2.In Tang Dynasty it was 16th to 18th of the first month in the lunar calendar, which involved three days.

3.In Ming Dynasty, as Zhu Yuanzhang became the emperor in Nanjing, the Lantern Festival was extended to ten days.

4.Playing Dragon Lantern is not only played by ordinary people, but also by the soldiers.

5.The length of the lantern is not as long as other places can. The short one is more than ten feet, the long is more than a hundred knots, and it can be played by hundreds of people.

6.There is a lantern-shaped in horse pioneered by Nanjing people. The lantern is covered with candles inside. Using the principle of thermal expansion of the air, the lamp surface is driven to rotate. The lamp surface is painted with various postures of horses galloping like ten thousand horses.

7.a lantern-shaped in horse.

===References===

[1]Lu Haiming 卢海鸣. (2002). ''六朝都城'' [Capital of Six Dynasties]. Nanjing: Nanjing Press 南京出版社.

[2]Yao Yifeng 姚亦锋. (2007).从南京城市地理格局研究古都风貌规划 [Research on the Planning of Ancient Capital from the Geographical Pattern of Nanjing].人文地理 Human Geography.(03)92-97.

[3]Zhu Yaoting 朱耀廷.(2003). 定都与迁都——中国七大古都比较研究之一 [Setting and Moving the Capital: One of the Comparative Studies of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China].北京联合大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Beijing Union University（Humanities and Social Sciences). (01) 69-76.

[4]Jiangsu Local Chronicles, Nanjing Culture, (2015).http://jssdfz.jiangsu.gov.cn/

==Chinese Traditional Culture-Five Constant Virtues Yang Hui 阳慧英语口译 202070080646==

Owning over thousands of years of history, the Chinese have created a brilliant history and culture, and at the same time have formed their own moral code that has played an important role in social development and progress. This is what we call Traditional Virtues, which still have great significance today and whose value to the development of human civilization is now widely recognized. Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity are the Five Constant Virtues which are the most important ones in traditional China. They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China. To be a moral person, the ancient Chinese cultivated and test themselves according to the Five Constant Virtues and carried them down to the modern life. The brief and concise expression of " benevolence, righteousness, propriety , wisdom and fidelity" is not only the conciseness of Chinese traditional culture, its summary and abstract form of moral category can be said to be the " brand " of Chinese traditional ethics and morality, its value in Chinese traditional culture can be compared to the market value of a commercial brand with a long history.(Xu Keqian 2005, 4）

===Benevolence (Ren)===
Benevolence is the first and most important virtue among the Five Constant Virtues. It manifests itself in the inner mind in love and compassion for people and in avoiding harm or envy toward anyone. In terms of behavior, benevolence demands that one be amiable, not argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds. To cultivate one‘s virtue of Benevolence one should use another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to anyone else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others. Virtue, in this Confucian view, is based upon harmony with other people, produced through this type of ethical practice by a growing identification of the interests of self and other. Zeng Zi once said: My three provinces are my body. Cheating? Make friends without any sincerity ?go over what I have Learned?(Zhu Xi, 2005,27). In short, as parents treat their children, the benevolent person spares no effort to help others; one even lays down one’s life to this end, with no thought of being repaid(Zhu Xi, 2005,27).

===Righteousness (Yi)===
Among his teachings, Confucius emphasized righteousness which is the ability to distinguish between right and wrong. Righteousness can be thought of as similar to what is often referred to as a “conscience or “justice”. Confucius believed that actions should be taken on the basis of whether the act is morally right or wrong as opposed to whether it will provide profit or utility to an individual or group. Above all righteousness is about preserving one’s integrity. The unjust but rich to me is as clouds(China Publishing House 2006, 56).

===Propriety (Li)===
Propriety means ceremony or correct behavior. The contents of propriety include loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc. Originating in ancient sacrificial rites, propriety, in a general sense signifies behavioral norms which maintain hierarchy. Confucius urged people to restrain oneself with propriety ,be polite ,treat others with propriety, saying that people cannot act without propriety. In ancient society, besides the relation of monarch and subjects, there were also the relations of father and sons, husband and wife, the elder and the young, teacher and students, and others. These relations differ but all demand modest respect to others(China Publishing House 2006, 76).

===Wisdom (Zhi)===
Wisdom is the knowledge by which one judges right and wrong, good and evil. The saint define the personality of “the wise” as “a wise man free from confusions”. The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different paths. That is to say, the wisdom concerns not only one person's ability and aptitude, but also his moral cultivation. The Doctrine of the Mean once said that "knowledge, benevolence, courage, the world's greatest valued. Also wisdom, its basic connotation is smartness. Confucius also pointed out that the acquisition of "wisdom" lies in learning, which can be obtained from both books and life(Zi Si 2007,32 ).

===Fidelity (Xin)===
Fidelity is honesty. This means that, externally, one’s deeds match one’s words; and that internally one’s words and mind are in unison. Fidelity is a key to the perfection of human nature. Robert Schuller, an American scholar at the niyama world civilization forum, the hometown of confucius in qufu, china, said: " faith, that is, honesty, should be emphasized to the people around you, family members and the wider population. So honesty is a very important principle. Everyone should be honest with each other, and of course you need to be humble, which is also very important so that we can create a harmonious environment. Thus it is the basis without which other virtues lose their authenticity ; hence they are inseparable. Fidelity is natural in a child, but might be lost due to external influences(Robert Schuller 2016, 4).

Benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faith in the " Five Constant Virtues " are the fundamental requirements of the moral norms of the gentleman, the spiritual support of the individual to settle down to the era of the use of Confucianism, and the " Five Moral Goals " of the Confucian view of the gentleman can better implement the core values of socialism, so that the historical tradition and the present reality, an organic combination and a link between the past and the future. Zhang pointed out that Confucianism is not the culture of God, but the moral culture centered on people, how to be a man, be a moral, ideal and effective person ;To be honest and friendly, to be respectful: to say what you do not want. To do to others ;Be faithful and forgiving(Zhang Qizhi 2016, 53).

===Expressions and Terms===
Five Constant Virtues 五常

benevolence 仁

righteousness 义

propriety 礼

wisdom 智

fidelity 信

moral code 道德准则

filial piety 孝道

===Questions===
1.what does the Five Constant Virtues refer to ?

2.In terms of behavior. what does Benevolence demand ?

3.What do the contents of the Propriety include ?

4.What is the real man of the wisdom ?

5. Where does the Five Constant Virtues come from ?

===Answers===
1.Benevolence , righteousness, propriety, wisdom and fidelity.

2. Benevolence demands that one should be amiable, neither argue angrily with others nor do evil deeds.

3.It includes loyalty, filial piety , fraternal duty, respect, etc.

4.The real man of wisdom shall not only be able to distinguish truth from falsehood, but also be rational and sensible; he shall never get confused in front of profits or different .

5.They all came from Confucianism and are widely acknowledged all over China.

===Reference===

Wei LI 韦利. (1998). 论语[the Analects of Confucius].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社.

Robert Schuller. （2016）. 罗伯特舒乐.人类危机与文明对话-许嘉璐与罗伯特舒乐的高端对话[Human Crisis and Dialogue of Civilization--A High-level Dialogue between Xu Jialu and Robert Schuller]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Xu Keqian 徐克谦. (2005）.仁义礼智信与当代道德文明建设[Five Constant Virtues and the Construction of Contemporary Moral Civilization]. Learning Forum 学习论坛

Zhu Xi 朱熹. (2005). 四书集注[Notes on Four Book]. Jiang Su: Phoenix Publishing House 凤凰出版社.

Zi Si 子思. (2007). 中庸[The Doctrine of the Mean]. Harbin: Harbin Publishing House 哈尔滨出版社.

Zhang Qizhi 张岂之. (2016).中国文化的会通精神[The Communicative Spirit of Chinese Culture ]. Chang Chun : Chang Chun Press 长春出版社.
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 03:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheongsam - Yang Yue 杨悦 - Student No.202070080617 英语笔译==
===Cheongsam===

Cheongsam, the traditional costume of Chinese women in China and around the world, is known as the quintessence of China and female national apparel. It is one of the most splendid phenomena and forms in China's long dress culture. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)

====Brief Introduction====

Cheongsam is a classic dress with the most traditional Chinese characteristics, the most national representatives and the best expression of the beauty of Oriental female. When people think of cheongsam, the first thing that comes to mind is its chic paintings and rich poetic sentiment, which show the virtuous, elegant and gentle temperament of Chinese women in the exquisite curves, and show the unique implicit beauty of Oriental women with flowing lines. After more than 300 years of evolution, it still enjoys high reputation such as "Oriental Wonders", "Chinese Dress", and "The Best of Clothing". This has witnessed that “the classic represents eternity”. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 17).

In 1984, cheongsam was designated by the State Council as a dress for female diplomats. On May 23, 2011, approved by the State Council, the handmade craftsmanship of cheongsam became one of the third batch of national intangible cultural heritage. In November 2014, the Chinese government chose cheongsam as the dress of the leaders’ wives of the participating countries at the 22nd APEC meeting in Beijing. (Mao Jing 2009, 1)

====The History of Cheongsam====

Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century. In the early days, the cheongsam worn by banner people was generally not over their feet. Only when Manchu women get married, do they wear cheongsam as a wedding dress. Because all the Manchu noble women wear high-heeled wooden clogs, their cheongsam is so long that it can cover their feet. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)

After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam gained its popularity in the Central Plains. After the Qing Dynasty unified China and also the national clothing, men wear long gowns and mandarins, and women wear cheongsam. Later, with the integration and unity of Manchu and Han life, cheongsam was gradually absorbed by Han women and continued to be innovated. (Mao Jing 2009, 2)

Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country. From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women’ s clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower. In the mid-1930s, the cheongsam gradually grew longer and even shuffled to the floor. The slits on both sides were very high, and the waist was lined with a waistcoat. The waist became extremely narrow, and even fitted, showing the curve of the female . (Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengyu 2006, 386-387).

In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were even all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago. The only difference was that it was lighter and fitter and became streamlined. Beginning in the 1950s, in order to adapt to the needs of modern life, costume designers began to continuously improve Chinese cheongsam so that this national costume not only has oriental characteristics, but also conforms to the fashion trends of the world. And in this period, cheongsam, which is elegant and virtuous, has been internationally recognized. (Hongxia Liu 2009, 1)

In the past 20 years, the improved cheongsam we see has been greatly influenced by international fashion trends. For a time, various forms of the cheongsam such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly. The colors are gorgeous, jumping, thick, and soft, boldly breaking through the old pattern of cheongsam. (Wang Di 2014, 67)

The improved cheongsam not only retains the original features, but also incorporates the sense of innovation. Since then, the traditional Manchu dress has been injected into the blood of the times and given the vitality of youth. Cheongsam and fashion co-exist together, expressing a new feeling from a new perspective and a new concept. (Wang Di 2014, 67)

====The Significance of Cheongsam====

Through the baptism of history, the cheongsam has become the most representative symbol of the elegance of Oriental women. When it comes to Oriental female, people often think of a graceful woman wearing cheongsam. The silk commonly used in cheongsam makes the feminine figure more incisive and vivid. The oriental charm and elegance of the cheongsam is astounding. Nowadays, cheongsam has become a symbol of beauty beyond ordinary clothes in general sense, becoming an immortal classic. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)

Cheongsam has been leading the pace of tradition and fashion in the course of hundreds of years of evolution, inheriting Chinese civilization, showing the self-cultivation and virtues of the wearer, and becoming a model of traditional Chinese culture in modern times. We have reason to believe that cheongsam can connect the past and the future, life and art, and brings Chinese people’ s understanding and interpretation of beauty to the world. (Mao Jing 2009, 3)

In conclusion, after modern processing and improvement, the cheongsam has become an elegant dress that is loved by the public. Its cultural and artistic value of is worthy of being studied. China’s five thousand years of splendid history and culture retain its vitality of youth on the cheongsam, and the traditional costume culture is still shining on the modern stage. This provides the possibility for the study of the history of clothing development and adds infinite charm for the spread and promotion of Chinese culture. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)

Nowadays, cheongsam is a Chinese female dress with traditional charm and modern vitality. Its past is unpredictable, but its present keeps pace with the times. Whether in films, television works or in wedding photography, cheongsam shows fresh vitality. (Tong Zhijun 2007, 137)

===References===

*Tong Zhijun 佟志军. (2007). 旗袍与女性 [Cheongsam and Women]. 北京：服装设计师 Beijing: Fashion Designer (1) 137.
*Chen Juanjuan, Huang Nengfu 陈娟娟, 黄能馥. (2006). 中国服装史 [History of Chinese Clothing]. Beijing: China Tourism Press 北京：中国旅游出版社 386-387.
*Mao Jing 毛敬. (2009). 中国旗袍及其向世界的传播 [The Chinese Cheongsam and Its Spread to the World]. 淮北职业技术学院学报 Journal of Huaibei Vocational and Technical College 34.
*Wang Di 王迪. (2014). 中国旗袍的历史演变 [The Historical Evolution of Chinese Cheongsam]. 美术教育研究 Research on Art Education 67.
*Hongxia Liu. The Cheongsam—the Treasure of Chinese National Apparel. 2009, 1(1)

===Terms and Expressions===

*Cheongsam 旗袍
*the quintessence of China 国粹
*national intangible cultural heritage 非物质文化遗产
*Manchu 满族
*long gowns and mandarins 长袍马褂
*the improved cheongsam 改良旗袍
*sleeveless 无袖
*fur trim 毛皮饰边
*Sequins 亮片
*fabric printing 织物印花
*embroidery 刺绣
*topless 袒胸
*nude back 裸背
*low collar 低领
*high slit 高开叉

===Questions===

1.When did the cheongsam originate from?

2. When did the cheongsam become popular in central China?

3. When did the cheongsam become popular throughout the country?

4.What is the features of the cheongsam from the late 1920s to the early 1930s?

5. What is the features of the cheongsam in the 1940s?

6. In the past 20 years, influenced by international fashion trends, what changes have taken place in cheongsam?

===Answers===

1.Cheongsam is a national costume originated from Manchu women in the mid-16th century.

2.After the Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty entered the Shanhai Pass and moved to Beijing, cheongsam became popular in the Central Plains.

3.Following the 1911 Revolution, cheongsam quickly gained its popularity throughout the country.

4.From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, influenced by the short gown that was popular in western women's clothing, the cheongsam also became shorter. The length of the cheongsam was just over the knee, the cuffs were narrowed, and the piping became narrower.

5.In the 1940s, the cheongsam was shortened again, and the sleeves were so short that they were all canceled. It almost returned to the long vest era two hundred years ago.

6. For a time, various forms such as low collar, sleeveless, tight waist, high slit, ultra short, topless, nude back, etc. have changed a lot. Sequins, embroidery, fur trim, fabric printing and other craft decorations shine brightly.
--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Folding Screen--Yang Ziling 杨子泠 202070080647 MTI英语口译==

====1.1 Introduction ====

Folding screens are a kind of flexible furniture and composed of several frames or panels linked together. They serve practical and decorative functions, being made from various materials and in many styles. Folding screens originated in ancient China. Written references date from around the 4th century BC, during the Han dynasty, but they were probably used earlier. (Milica Sterjova 2017, 1)

====1.2 History and Technology====

The earliest surviving folding screens are Chinese. Existing Chinese screens, some of which are
paper, date from the eighth century AD, although literary references date as far back as the Zhou
dynasty (fourth to third century BC), and depictions of screens occur in Han dynasty tombs (200
BC-200 AD). However, it was in Japan that the screen form evolved into its most celebrated
variations. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)

Chinese screens which were made originally as partitions painted with beautiful and serious works, were not designed to be moved around very often. (Emmaantiques, 2014)
They were initially made of wooden panels and decorated with fine art. Many themes are painted on the panels, such as mythology, scenes of palace life, and nature, making them more of a piece of furniture. It is often associated with intrigue and romance in Chinese literature, for example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen. Examples of such romantic occasions can be seen in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.

The folding screen is also an important element in Tang literature. Li He, the Tang Poet, wrote the "Song of the Screen" (屏风曲), in which he described a folding screen of a newly-wed couple. The folding screen surrounded the bed of the young couple, and its twelve panels were adorned with butterflies alighted on China pink flowers (an allusion to lovers), and had silver hinges resembling glass coins. (Mazurkewich, Karen, 2006) There are heavy wooden structures with other decorations pulled through holes near the edges of the panels. The frame was prominent, and the image development was frequently vertical and confined to the individual panels, creating a pleasing pattern. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)

They were made flexible when an ingenious system of strong paper hinges were integrated in the panel construction, which made folding patterns reversible. The panels were brought closer by the paper hinges, which reduce the need for frames separating panels and allow a horizontal orientation of the picture plane. This provides creative approaches to the various spatial relationships of the panels. (Dianne Lee van der Reyden, 2)

====1.3 Uses====

Although originated in China, folding screens are now used in many interior designs around the world. People first used them also in some practical ways, such as preventing draft in homes, as shown by the two characters in their name: ping(屏 "screen; blocking") and feng (风 "breeze, wind"). People would also use them to bestow a sense of privacy; in old times, they would often be placed in rooms serving as dressing screens for ladies. (Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)

Folding screens can be put up as to divide a large space and change the configuration of the room. They could also be used as a false way set up at the entrance of a room to create a desirable atmosphere by hiding certain features like doors to a kitchen. Now that many folding screens are design with fine art, they serve the decorative purposes well in the interior features of a home.(Cooper Dan 1999, 30-36)

====1.4 Spread====

After becoming popular in China, folding screens spread to other parts of the world, including East Asia and later Europe. In the 7th century, they appeared in Japan for the first time during the reign of Emperor Tenmu, and they were presented to the Korean kingdom of Silla as a gift. By the 8th century, they had gained such popularity in Japan that Japanese artists began to make their own, very much influenced by Chinese design. Different sizes served different purposes: small 2-fold screens were often used for the tea ceremony and a larger 8-fold screen could be used as backdrops for dances. Japanese screens were lighter, often made of silk or even paper. Painted screens were a major component of traditional Japanese architecture, and their decoration reflected the leading schools and movements in Japanese art. They served many purposes, being used for tea ceremonies, as backgrounds for concerts or dances, and as enclosures for Buddhist rites. (David Leopold 2008,9)

Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century. Owing to their practical functions and the distinguished decoration, they drew a lot of attention. The famous designer Coco Chanel was totally enchanted by Coromandel screens. She was well-known for her collection of Chinese folding screens. She possessed 32 folding screens, 8 of which were preserved in her apartment in Paris. She once stated:   “I’ve loved Chinese screens since I was eighteen years old. I nearly fainted with joy when, entering a Chinese shop, I saw a Coromandel for the first time. Screens were the first thing I bought.“ (Delay Claude 1983, 12)

By the early 18th century, European craftsmen had already begun making folding screens on their own. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques. At that time, leather screens were fashionable, but their popularity didn't last long, only to be restored around 1860 during the reign of Napoleon III with the wave of Japonism that inspired a number of French artists. (Milica Sterjova 2017)

In the 20th century when new modern heating means were invented, the functions of the folding screen became mostly decorative.

====1.5 Expressions and Terms====

Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》

the Korean Kingdom of Silla 朝鲜新罗王国

Emperor Tenmu 天武天皇

====1.6 Questions====

1. When did folding screens first appear?

2. How are folding screens associated with romance in Chinese literature?

3. What functions do screens serve?

4. When did they spread to Europe?

5. How did European craftsmen make folding screens?

===1.7 Answers===

1. Literary references date as far back as the Zhou dynasty (fourth to third century BC).

2. For example, a young lady in love could take a curious peek hidden from behind a folding screen, as presented in the classical novel Dream of the Red Camber of Cao Xueqin.

3. Preventing draft in homes, bestowing a sense of privacy and serving as dressing screens for ladies.

4. Folding screens from the Far East spread to Europe at the very beginning of the 17th century.

5. They made folding screens in less expensive painted versions instead using lacquer techniques.

===1.8 References===

Handler, Sarah (2007). ''Austere luminosity of Chinese classical furniture''. University of California Press. pp. 268–271, 275, 277.

Delay, Claude (1983). ''Chanel Solitaire. Gallimard''. p. 12. Cited in: "COCO CHANEL'S APARTMENT THE COROMANDEL SCREENS". Chanel News. June 29, 2010.

Milica Sterjova. ''A Brief history of folding screens''. https://www.wallswithstories.com/uncategorized/a-brief-history-of-folding-screens.html 2017

Emmaantiques. ''Asian Furniture Online''. https://asianfurnitureonline.wordpress.com/2014/11/19/history-of-asian-screens/ 2014

Dianne Lee van der Reyden, ''THE HISTORY, TECHNOLOGY, AND CARE OF FOLDING SCREENS: CASE STUDIES OF THE CONSERVATION TREATMENT OF WESTERN AND ORIENTAL SCREENS'', https://www.si.edu/mci/downloads/RELACT/folding_screens.pdf

David Leopold. ''Unfolding the Screen''. https://www.solowey.com/wp/page/9/ 2008

Mazurkewich, Karen; Ong, A. Chester (2006). ''Chinese Furniture: A Guide to Collecting Antiques''. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 144–146

Cooper, Dan (1999). ''Folding Grandeur. Old House Interiors''. 5 (1): 30–36.

--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:40, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

=='''Panda'''==
by Yi Zichu 义子楚英语笔译 202070080618--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 14:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

===1.The origin of giant pandas===
The ancestor of the giant panda is Ailuaractos. The scientific name of the giant panda is actually "cat bear", which means "a bear like a cat". The main branch of it continued to evolve in central and southern China. One species of Ailuaractos appeared in the early Pleistocene about 3 million years ago, and it was smaller than the current panda. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)

In the process, giant pandas have adapted to life in subtropical bamboo forests, gradually increasing in size and relying on bamboo for their livelihoods. In the middle and late Pleistocene, about 500,000-700,000 years ago, was the heyday of giant pandas. The Qinling giant panda has been identified as a subspecies of the giant panda. Biological fossils show that the ancestors of giant pandas appeared in the early 2 to 3 million years ago. (Sun Chengjian,2006,163)

The habitat of giant pandas once covered most of eastern and southern China, reaching Beijing in the north and southern Myanmar and northern Vietnam in the south. Giant panda fossils are usually found in temperate or subtropical forests at an altitude of 500 to 700 meters. Giant pandas have survived to now and maintain their original ancient characteristics. Therefore, they have a lot of scientific value and are known as "living fossils". China calls them "national treasures."(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)\

====2.Appearance features of giant pandas====
Giant pandas are fat like bears, plump and rich, round heads and short tails, with a head length of 1200-1800mm and a tail length of 100-120mm. The weight is 80-120kg, and its maximum weight can reach 180kg. The raised pandas are a little heavier, and the males are generally slightly larger than the females. The hair color of its head and body is distinct from black and white. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

However, it is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow. The pandas in the Qinling Mountains are relatively large, with rough body hair and slightly brownish abdominal hair. The black and white appearance is conducive to hiding in dense forest trees and snow-covered ground without being easily spotted by natural enemies. Relatively sharp claws, well-developed and powerful front and rear limbs help the giant panda to climb up tall trees quickly. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

The giant panda's skin is thick, which can be up to 10 mm at its thickest point. The skin thickness of different parts of the body is different. The back of the body is thicker than the ventral side, and the outside of the body is thicker than the inside of the body. The average thickness of the skin is about 5 mm, and it is white, elastic and tough. The vision of giant pandas is extremely underdeveloped. This is because giant pandas live in dense bamboo forests for a long time. The light is very dark and there are many obstacles, making their eyes very short and shallow. (Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

In addition, because its pupils are split like cats, they can still do activities when night comes.Giant pandas live in the high mountains and deep valleys of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China, which are the windward side of the southeast monsoon. The climate is warm and humid, and their humidity is often above 80%. The giant pandas prefer humid environment. The 6 long and narrow areas where giant pandas live, including Minshan, Qionglai, Liangshan, Daxiangling, Xiaoxiangling and Qinling Mountains, spans 45 counties (cities) in the 3 provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

The land area of their habitats is more than 20,000 square kilometers, and the population of there is about 1,600, of which more than 80% are distributed in Sichuan.(Sun Chengjian,2006,165)

====3.The diet features of giant pandas====
The recipes of giant pandas are very special, almost including all kinds of bamboo that can be found in high mountain areas. Giant pandas also occasionally eat meat (usually the carcasses of animals or sometimes of rhizomys). The unique dieting characteristics of the giant panda make it known as the "bamboo bear" by the locals. Giant pandas have gradually evolved to herbivore. As bamboo has a few nutrition that can only provide the basic nutrients needed for pandas’ survival, giant pandas eat up to 14 hours a day except for sleeping or some short-distance activities in the wild environment. A giant panda eats 12 to 38 kilograms of bamboo per day, which is close to 40% of its body weight. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,17)

They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots. There are usually at least two types of bamboo in the giant panda habitat. When one kind of bamboo blooms and dies (bamboo periodically blooms and dies every 30 to 120 years), pandas can choose other bamboos. However, the continued fragmentation of the habitat increases the possibility that there is only one kind of bamboo. When this kind of bamboo becomes distinct, the giant pandas in this area will face the threat of starvation. (Hu Jinzhi,1981,20)

====4.Giant pandas in Chinese culture====
The appearance of giant pandas coincides with the origin of Chinese traditional culture. Tong Changxin, a painter who is good at color ink painting of giant pandas, made a painting called "Jiaozi of Heaven," in which two young giant pandas lie together in a group, forming a picture of you and me, embracing and relying on each other. It is very similar to the Taiji picture that represents the "first picture under heaven" of Chinese traditional culture. The distribution of black and white body color of giant pandas is full of the beauty of balance and symmetry. The black mouth and nose corresponds to the white tail, the black ears correspond to the white head parts on both sides of the front and back, and the black circles under the eyes correspond to the white cheeks. Compared visually, black and white occupy almost the same area in appearance, and the two are distinct, opposite and unified, contradictory and harmonious, and none of the colors go to extremes. It implies the philosophical truth of interdependence and inclusion between things, which is the perfect inspiration of the quintessence of thought in the origin of Chinese traditional culture.

Once the giant panda has identified the scope of its territory, it will live in its own territory and will not infringe upon the territory of other giant pandas. Giant pandas still retain the characteristics of carnivores with short digestive tract, no cecum, sharp claws and tusks, strong body strength, strong bite force, first-class running and tree climbing speed, and no natural enemies in adulthood. It can be said that if you want to dominate the world, there is almost no difficulty. However, giant pandas always uphold the warm temperament, good moral character,and adhere to their niche in nature, harmony with many species, quite a family demeanor. It is consistent with the quality of "virtuous goods" of the Chinese people that "harmony is the most precious" and "harmony is not disputed".

=====Terms and expressions====
Ailuaractos lufengensis 始熊猫

Pleistocene 更新世

rhizomys 竹鼠

cellulose 纤维素

burgeons 嫩枝

====Questions====
1.What's the ancestor of giant pandas?

2.What are the features of giant pandas' skin?

3.Do giant pandas like hot environment?

4.What part of bamboo do giant panda eat?

===Answers===
1.Ailuaractos

2.It is not pure black, or pure white. It is black with brown through and white with yellow

3.No,they like humid enviornment.

4.They like to eat the most nutritious and least cellulose-containing parts of bamboo, namely the tender stems, burgeons, and bamboo shoots

===References===
[1]Yan Weiran,Tang Maolin,Chen Zeyuan,Chen Peng,Zhao Qijun,Que Pinjia,Wu Kongju,Hou Rong,Zhang Zhihe. Automatically predicting giant panda mating success based on acoustic features[J]. Global Ecology and Conservation,2020,24.

[2]丛丽,吴必虎.基于网络文本分析的野生动物旅游体验研究——以成都大熊猫繁育研究基地为例[J].北京大学学报(自然科学版),2014,50(06):1087-1094.

[3]雍严格,王宽武,汪铁军.佛坪大熊猫的移动习性[J].兽类学报,1994(01):9-14.

[4]胡锦矗.大熊猫的食性研究[J].南充师院学报(自然科学版),1981(03):17-22.

[5]孙承骞,张哲邻,金学林.秦岭大熊猫局域种群的划分及数量分布[J].陕西师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006(S1):163-167.

==Legalism==
by You Yuting 游雨婷 - Student No.202070080619 英语笔译

Legalism is a prominent school of thought in Chinese history that advocates the rule of law as its core and regards enriching the country and strengthening the army as its mission. The legalists are not pure theorists, but active actionists, whose thoughts also focus on the practical effects of law. It also puts forward the idea and concept of governing the country by law which still has far-reaching influence. A review based on the evolution of theories of legal relations showed that the study of the general theory of law in China is closely associated to the historical rate of progress of the practice of rule of law in China.(Lei Lei,Chris 2020,81).

====1.Representative figures====

Legalism developed relatively slowly, but took shape very early. The earliest could be traced back to the Xia and Shang rulers, and it became mature in the Warring-States Period. Through the unremitting efforts made by Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and others, It gradually became a school of thought. At the end of the Warring-States Period, Han Fei summarized their theories, which was the greatest achievement of legalists. Shang Yang and Han Fei are two remarkable figures of this school, and they dedicated their life to promoting and practicing the ideas of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

Shang Yang, formerly known as Wei Yang, also known as Gongsun Yang, was born in the State of Wei during the Warring States Period. He put forward three reform plans, namely "the way of emperor", "the way of king" and "the overbearing way". Shang Yang talked about the overbearing policy of reform and won the heart of Duke Xiao. Shang Yang entered the stage to display his ideal. The main contents of Shang Yang's reform are as follows: establishing a new merit-based military system; offering reward for ploughing and weaving to ensure sufficient grain and grass for the army of Qin. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

After Shang Yang's reform, The State of Qin quickly became a powerful state, which laid the foundation for later generations to unify the whole country and further enriched the thought of legalism. (Wang Jian 2001,51).

As for Han Fei, Han Fei (280 B. C. -- 233 B. C.), from Han state of the Warring States period, was a master in the legalist school. Han Feizi is the originator of the Legalism, his philosophy together significantly influenced by the “legalist ancestors”（Tingchun Ngai 2019,7）. Han Fei's thought had a strong tendency of practical rationality, and he treated the practical effect as the criterion for judging everything.(Wang Jian 2001,52).

Han Fei developed a systematic legalist thought by combining “Shi” of Shen Dao, the "Shu" of Shen Buhai, and the "Fa" of Shang Yang. Han Fei was nobleman in Han State, but his thoughts were not adopted by the king of Han State at that time. Although Han Fei failed to realize his ambition during his lifetime, he further developed his legalist thoughts and theories, which provided a powerful theoretical basis for the first emperor of Qin to unify the whole country.(Wang Jian 2001,52)

====2.Values====

Legalism in pre-Qin period, which attached great attention to law and its compulsory function among other school of thoughts. Representatives of this school discussed the origin, nature, function of law, and the relationship between law and social economy, the demand of The times, state power, population and human nature. And it turned out to be a great success. There are several beliefs that the legalist school hold and advocate .(Guo Yanting 2014,71).

First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because of the benefits that lies ahead. With this same idea in mind, Shang Yang came to the conclusion that "people can govern one's likes and dislikes in life." Legalist school, therefore, combined the humanity with the management of the country, introducing reward and punishment to drive its people to work and fight hard for their country.(Guo Yanting 2014,71).

Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform. They believe that history moves forward and that all laws and institutions should be developed along with the development of history. Shang Yang clearly put forward the proposition of "Don’t follow the practices of the ancient and the present". Han Fei, on the other hand, took Shang Yang's idea a step further by proposing that "The way of running the country stays the same as the time changes; the country will be in chaos", and dismissing old-fashioned Confucian as a fool who waits for nothing.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).

Third, The combination of Fa, Shi, Shu. Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics. When Han Fei, the master of legalist school, put forward the idea of combining the three closely. (Guo Yanting 2014,72).

In Han Fei’s opinion, Fa refers to the improvement of the legal system, Shi refers to the power of the monarch, the sole military and political power, Shu refers to the control over the ministers, the control of political power, the implementation of laws and strategies and means. "Shi" lays the basis for ruling the masses and gaining advantages, similar to "management authority" in modern management(Dai Shu 2002,8). The main purpose is to avoid insurrection and maintain the power of the monarch. The three ideas proposed by the legalism still exert great impact on the improvement of the modern law.(Guo Yanting 2014,72).

====3.Works====

Legalism has produced many great works such as Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi as an example, Han Fei inherited and summarized the thoughts and practices of legalists in the Warring States Period and put forward the theory of absolute monarchy and centralization. In this book, Han Fei pointed out that the sovereign must be powerful to govern the country. Feudal officials with rich experiences should be selected to replace the hereditary slave owners and nobles, so that the power of the state could solely lie in the hands of the sovereign. (Dai Shu 2002,8).

It is worth mentioning that in this book Han Fei Zi, it also recorded a large number of popular fable stories, such as "self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" and so on. These fables contain deep philosophy, and inspire people through the perfect combination of ideas and artistry.(Dai Shu 2002,12).

====References====

*Lei Lei,Chris.The General Theory of Law and Its Development in China[J].Contemporary Social Sciences,2020(05):81-107.
*Tingchun Ngai.The Debates on Human Nature and Political Governance in Ancient China: Mencius, Xunzi and Han Feizi. Open Access Library Journal,2019, 6(4):1-14.
*Guo Yanting. 郭艳婷.(2014). 浅论法家思想及其现实意义.[On Legalist Thought and Its Practical Significance][J].湖北广播电视大学学报[Journal of Hubei Radio and Television University],34(02):71-72.
*Dai Shu. 戴黍.(2002). 以“势”为中心的制度设计——韩非治国思想的现代解读.[The System Design with "Shi" as the Center -- the Modern Interpretation of Han Fei's Thoughts on Governing A Country][J].华南师范大学学报[Journal of South China Normal University],(03):7-12.
*Wang Jian. 王健(2001). 法家事功思想初探——以《商君书》、《韩非子》为中心.[A Preliminary Study on the Thought of Legalist Achievement -- Centering on Shang Jun Shu and Han Feizi][J].史学月刊[The Historical Journal],(06):51-56.

====Terms and Expressions====

1.Legalism法家

2.the way of emperor帝道

3.the way of king王道

4.the overbearing way 霸道

5.being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful 好利恶害

6.self-contradiction自相矛盾

7.wait for windfalls守株待兔

8.safety in numbers滥竽充数

9.sense comes with age老马识途

====Questions====

1.When did legalism become mature?

2.Do you know the representative figures of legalism?

3.Can you make a list of values proposed by legalism?

4.what does "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" mean? Can you make some examples?

5.Does the members of legalism object the thoughts of Confucian school?

6.What are the classical works of legalism?

7.What are the popular fable stories contained in the book of Han Fei?

===Answers===

1.It became mature in the Warring-States Period.

2.Guan Zhong, Zi Chan, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang.

3.First, The legalists believe that people have the nature of "being fond of the beneficial instead of the harmful" . Second, the legalists opposed the conservative idea of restoring ancient ways and advocated vigorous reform.Third, The combination of Fa(law), Shi(power), Shu(art). Shang Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai respectively advocated Fa, Shi, Shu with its own characteristics.

4.Guan Zhong once said that a businessman who could travel thousands of miles day and night would not feel far because the attraction of the benefits. Fishermen, who was not afraid of danger and sailed against the current, not caring about a hundred miles away, pursued the benefits of fishing.

5.Yes.

6.Guan Zi, Shang Jun Shu, Shenko, Shen Zi, and Han Fei Zi. Take Han Fei Zi.

7."self-contradiction", "wait for windfalls", "safety in numbers", "sense comes with age" .
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:12, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

20201228 trans

2020-12-28T03:33:09Z

Yi Zichu: /* Yi Zichu 义子楚 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.

通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。

据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.

“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”

”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.

'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''

对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。

2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。

3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.

2、社会政治在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。

3，个人在香港关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。

在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".

政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020

政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.

非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.

1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.

由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.

“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。

对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.

这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''

在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。

更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).

20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''

相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.

文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。

感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.

为什么论文像小说一样丰富？

让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：

-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响，并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。

3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。

关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。

然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).

梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。

6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:

以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).

例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.

见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.

参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.

因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.

他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.

'''2. 兼容性
'''
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？

首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.

然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。

'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''

《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.

《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.

此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。

“5. 成熟和异化”

抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).

德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。

"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”

情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。

玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

9. “非二进制小说”

可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“非二元”小说

一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信

口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段

湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒

摘要

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

----

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。

"两种类型的交际行为"

1.
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)

2.
上网行为(浏览网站)

3.
消费者行为(购买)

4.
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)

5.
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)

6.
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）

8.社交互动，包括友谊，性关系

9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

'''3种分析类型'''

1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）

2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）

3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）

4..流动概况/模式

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。

7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。

8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。

9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）

3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会的两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。

7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。

7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟迫近的未来
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。

尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。

人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

'''9展望'''

我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

个人简历

自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201221 cult

2020-12-28T03:24:18Z

Yi Zichu: /* Yi Zichu 义子楚 */

==Alsied, Saffana==
1. Their king was killed and his skull turned into a drinking vessel. As a result, the Rouzhi fled and bore a constant grudge against the Xiongnu. At this time, the Han became increasingly strong, and Emperor Wu was determined to defeat the Xiongnu.--[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。结果，柔脂逃走了，对熊怒不断地怀恨在心。这时，汉人变得越来越强大，吴皇帝决心打败匈奴。

他们的国王被杀，他的头骨变成了饮酒器。结果，大月氏逃走了，却仍然对匈奴怀恨在心。这时，汉朝变得越来越强大，汉武帝决定攻打匈奴。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.They even carried on their ships many foreign heads of state and envoys to China. On the voyage of 1423 alone, they brought 1,200 envoys from 16 countries to China, some of whom even preferred not to go back. --[[User:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|SAFFANA ALSIED 2]] ([[User talk:SAFFANA ALSIED 2|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

他们甚至还搭载了许多外国国家元首和特使前往中国。仅在1423年的航行中，他们就将来自16个国家的1200名使节带到了中国，其中一些人甚至不愿回国。

3.In the second half of the 16th century, foreign missionaries from the Society of Jesus came to China. They spread religious doctrines on the one hand and introduced on the other hand works on astronomy, mathematics, physics, geography, paintings, and music to China. Meanwhile, they brought to the West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchanges between China and the West.

16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面向中国介绍天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作。同时，他们把西方的儒道思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。

16世纪下半叶，耶稣会的外国传教士来到中国。他们一方面传播宗教学说，另一方面把天文学，数学，物理学，地理，绘画和音乐方面的著作引入中国。同时，他们把中国的儒家和道家思想带到了西方，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.After the Second Opium War (1856-1860), Yi Xin (Prince Gong) and local officials realized that China had lagged far behind the West in weaponry and military technology, and advocated learning advanced production technology and troop training methods from the West so as to build a modern national defense. Known as the School of Westernization, these people launched a movement to learn from Western powers.

第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，巩义王子和当地官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，并主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，以便建立现代国防。这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了向西方列强学习的运动。

第二次鸦片战争（1856-1860）之后，奕䜣（恭亲王）和国内官员意识到中国在武器装备和军事技术方面远远落后于西方，因而他们主张从西方学习先进的生产技术和部队训练方法，旨在建立一支现代化的国防军队。这些人被称为洋务派，他们发起了一场向西方列强学习的运动。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

1.汉政府在西域设置常驻官员，派士卒屯田，设校尉统领保护，使汉族同新疆少数民族交往更加密切。汉朝在西域设立西域都护府为标志，丝绸之路进入繁荣时代。

The government of the Han Dynasty set up permanent officials in the Western Regions, dispatched soldiers to garrison the fields, and assigned a captain to lead the protection, so that the Han people had closer exchanges with ethnic minorities in Xinjiang. Marked by the establishment of Protectorate of the Western Regions by the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road entered the era of prosperity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.三国时代，魏、蜀、吴均有丝绸生产，而吴雄踞江东，汉末三国正处在海上丝绸之路从陆地转向海洋的承前启后与最终形成的关键时期。

During the Three Kingdoms Period, the states of Wei, Shu and Wu all produced silk. And Wu stood firmly on the east bank of the Yangtze River. In the late Han Dynasty, the three states were at a crucial period when the Maritime Silk Road shifted from the land to the sea and eventually took shape. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.澳门由于在明嘉靖年间由朝廷让与葡萄牙人，因此在明末清初的西学东渐中，西方传教士常以澳门为中继站，而一些学术思想亦经由此逐渐传入中国内地，而许多与西人打交道的中国人亦在澳门及广州等地学习西方语言及文化。

Since Macau was ceded to the Portuguese by the imperial court during the years of Jaijing in the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries often regarded it as a transition for eastward spreading of Western learning during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and some academic ideas were gradually introduced to the Chinese mainland, while many Chinese who had dealings with Westerners also learned Western languages and cultures in Macau and Guangzhou. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务派后期创办的民用工业，投资大多采取官督商办和官商合办形式，产品主要作为商品投放市场，管理上采取劳动雇佣制，所以其本质上属于带有封建因素的资本主义性质的企业。

The civil industry founded by Westernization Group in the late period of the Movement was funded mostly by taking the government-supervised and merchant-managed form and the government-merchant cooperation. Its products were mainly put on the market as commodities and its management adopted the labor-employment system, so that it belongs to capitalist enterprises in essence featuring feudalism. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

1.丝绸之路不仅是古代亚欧互通有无的商贸大道，还是促进亚欧各国和中国的友好往来，沟通东西方文化的友谊之路。

The Silk Road is a commercial avenue for exchanges between Asia and Europe in ancient times as well as a road of frienndship that promotes friendly exchanges between Asian and European countries and China.

The Silk Road is not only a commercial avenue for exchanges of needed goods between ancient Asia and Europe, but also a road of friendship that promotes friendly communications, and cultural exchanges between China and European countries.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.在群星璀璨的中华英杰中，郑和不但以先于西方人航海，胜于西方人的航海技术受到国际社会的关注，而且以其所代表的一种文化精神得到人们的关注。

Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He not only got the attention for his sailing sills which precended and surpassed Westerns, but also attracted people's attention with the cultural spirit he represented.

Among the distinguished Chinese heroes, Zheng He received international concerns not only because of his navigation skills which surpassed the Westerners, but also for a cultural spirit he represented.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐意味着以西方之学术，灌输于中国，使中国日趋于文明富强之境。

The eastwars spread of western learning means instilling in China with Weastern academics so as to make China more civilized and prosperous.

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning means to instill western academics into China so as to make it more civilized and prosperous.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.处于传统国家和农业文明体系下的中国在面对经过资产阶级革命后的现代国家和工业文明的英国的挑战时显得不堪一击。

Under the traditional agricultural civilization system, China was such vulnerable to the challenges from England, which was already a modern and highly industrilized country after the bourgeois revolution. --[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

Under the traditional agricultural system, China was too vulnerable to face challenges from the British, which was already a modern and highly industrialized country after the bourgeois revolution.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

1.In 119 BC, Zhang Qian set off on his second journey to the Western Regions.

公元前119年，张谦出发了他的第二次西域之旅--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.While Zheng's fleet showed off Chinese might and naval prowess, orthodox Chinese histories depict him as never engaging in gunboat diplomacy, rather developing friendships with foreign leaders.

郑的舰队展示了中国的威力和海军实力，而正统的中国历史则将他描绘为从未从事炮舰外交，而是与外国领导人发展友谊。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.The eastward transmission of Western learning refers to the transmission of Western cultures in China in the mid-1800s.

西方学习向东传播是指1800年代中期西方文化在中国的传播--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.China has always been a planned economy where the government played a big role in deciding how the country should be controlled.

中国一直是计划经济国家，政府在决定如何控制国家方面发挥着重要作用。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。

A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

A vast batch of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road enable this long trip to be one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.作为一个具有野心的拥有回族血统的穆斯林太监、一个典型的游离于儒家学者精英体制之外的人，郑和在1405到1433年间七下西洋，其中六次都在永乐帝的支持下进行。

An ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent, a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433 with six of them under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

As an ambitious Muslim eunuch of Hui descent and a quintessential outsider in the establishment of Confucian scholar elites, Zheng He led seven expeditions from 1405 to 1433, with six expeditions under the auspices of Yongle.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:26, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.从19世纪下半叶到20世纪初,伴随着“西学东渐”的进程,西方妇女生活现状、人权思想及女权理论渐次传入中国,引起了中国思想界的关注。

From the second half of 19th century to the beginning of 20th century, with the progress of the eastward spread of western learning, western women's living situations, thoughts of human rights and feminist theories were gradually introduced into China and attracted the attention of the Chinese ideological circle.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.在具有现代性思维的汉家学者的引导下，人们学习了西方的科学和语言，一些大城市开设了特殊的学校，军械库、工厂和船坞也参照西方的模型得到了建造。

Under the direction of modern-thinking Han officials, western science and languages were studied, special schools were opened in the larger cities, and arsenals, factories, and shipyards were established according to western models.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

Under the guidance of the Han scholars with modern thinking, people learned the science and language of the west opened special schools in some big cities. Armouries, factories and docks were also built with reference to Western models.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
1.张骞被誉为伟大的外交家、探险家，是“第一个睁开眼睛看世界的中国人”、“丝绸之路的开拓者”、“东方的哥伦布”。

Zhang Qian, rated as a great diplomat and explorer, is "the first Chinese to open his eyes to see the world "," the pioneer of the Silk Road" and "Columbus of the East ". --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。

Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The Eastward World Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of spreading western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Eastward World Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times when western academic thoughts spread to China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

Westernization Movement, also known as self-strengthening movement. It is a self-help movement that introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s by Westernization School. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:51, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
1、张骞出使西域这一历史事件具有特殊的历史意义。张骞对开辟从中国通往西域的丝绸之路有卓越贡献，至今举世称道。

Zhang Qian’s westward travel is of historic and special significance in Chinese history. Zhang Qian made excellent contributions to the opening of the Silk Road from China to “The Western Regions”, which is even praised by today’s world.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、陆路是中西往来的最古老的通道，其主要工具是马和骆驼。但牲畜负载有限，费用巨大。此外沿途自然条件艰险，安全没有保障。所以当航海技术发展起来以后，海路在中西交通中所起的作用越来越重要。

Land route is the oldest access between China and“The Western Regions” and the major transportation tools were horses and camels. However, the load of those livestock was limited and cost much. Besides, the natural environment along the land route was hard and dangerous, making travelers lost security assurance.Therefore, with the development of seamanship, sea route began to play an increasingly important role in the communications between China and “The Western Regions”. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、明万历年间，随着耶稣会传教士的到来，对中国的学术思想有所触动。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。当时中国一些士大夫及皇帝接受了科学技术上的知识，但是在思想上基本没有受到影响。

During Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, as the coming of Jesuit missionaries in China, Chinese academic thought was slightly effected by western thought. At the same time of the spreading of Christian doctrines by those missionaries, a large amount of science and technology was introduced into China. Back then, Chinese emperor and some officials accepted knowledge of western science and technology,but their thought didn’t be influenced by the knowledge.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动进行30多年虽然没有使中国富强起来，但洋务运动引进了西方先进的科学技术，使中国出现了第一批近代企业，在客观上为中国民族资本主义的产生和发展起到了促进作用。

The westernization movement which lasted for over 30 years did not make China become richer or stronger, but it introduced the advanced western science and technology which stimulated the emergence of the first modern enterprises, objectively promoting the emergence and development of Chinese national capitalism. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Grosheva, Anna==

1. To Zhang's surprise, satisfied with their life, the Da Yuezhi people refused to make an alliance against the Huns.

令张某惊讶的是，大月之人对自己的生活感到满意，拒绝与匈奴结盟。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. He is thought to have become interested in Buddhist teachings later in life and died in India.

人们认为他晚年对佛教教义感兴趣，并在印度去世。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. This study analyzes four stages of the development of modern sports in Shanghai: germination, growth, thriving, and depression.

这项研究分析了上海现代体育发展的四个阶段：发芽，成长，繁荣和沮丧。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. By the time the Europeans launched an intensive drive to incorporate China at the beginning of the 1840s, the capitalist world economy was already completing the incorporation of other major new zones.

到1840年代初欧洲人开始大力整合中国时，资本主义世界经济已经在完成其他主要新地区的整合。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

1.丝绸之路是我国古代一条连接中国和欧亚大陆的交通线路，由于这条商路以丝绸贸易为主，故称为“丝绸之路”。

The Silk Road is a traffic route in the ancienttimes connecting China and Eurasia. This trade route focuses on the trade of silk, hencethe name "theSilk Road".

2.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代路上商业贸易路线。狭义上讲指陆上丝绸之路。广义上讲分为陆上丝绸之路和海上丝绸之路。“陆上丝绸之路”形成于于公元前2世纪与公元1世纪间，直至16世纪仍保留使用，以西汉时期长安为起点(东汉时为洛阳)，经河西走廊到敦煌。“海上丝绸之路”形成于秦汉时期。

The "Silk Road" refers to the ancient commercial trade routes starting from China and connecting Asia,Africa and Europe.In a broad sense,it is divided intothe silk road on the land and silk road on the sea.The "land silk road"opened between the 2nd century BC and the 1st century AD and remained in use until the 16th century.It started from Chang'an in the Western Han Dynasty(or Luoyang in the Eastern Han Dynasty)to Dunhuang via the Gansu Corridor. The "silk road on the sea" formed in the Qin and Han Dynasty.

3.在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press deeplytransformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from thecontent to the form. Then themodern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.

4.洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。

Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China.The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of
China's modernhistory andpromoted the Westernization movement.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

1. The Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes, formally established during the Han Dynasty of China, which linked the regions of the ancient world in commerce between 130 BCE-1453 CE.

丝绸之路是一条古老的贸易路线网，在中国汉朝期间正式建立，它连接了公元前130年至1453年之间的古代世界贸易地区。

2. The maritime Silk Road was a conduit for trade and cultural exchange between China's south-eastern coastal areas and foreign countries. There were two major routes: the East China Sea Silk Route and the South China Sea Silk Route .

海上丝绸之路是中国东南沿海地区与外国之间进行贸易和文化交流的渠道。有两条主要路线：东中国海丝绸之路和南中国海丝绸之路。

3. The Westernization Movement, also called the Self-Strengthening Movement, was championed by some Qing government officials from the early 1860s to the middle 1890s. Its aim was to introduce Western technology and modern industrial equipment. This nationwide movement failed because its advocates were unwilling to disturb the status quo of the ruling class. The Sino-Japanese War, which began in 1804 and ended with the annihilation of China’s Beiyang Fleet, exposed the utter failure of the three-decade-long Westernization Movement. As a result, reform-minded Chinese had to seek new ways to save the nation.

自1860年代初至1890年代中期，一些清政府官员就发起了洋务运动，也被称为自强运动。其目的是引进西方技术和现代工业设备。这项全国性运动失败了，因为其拥护者不愿打扰统治阶级的现状。抗日战争始于1804年，结束于北洋舰队的歼灭。这场长达3年之久的洋务运动彻底失败了。结果，具有改革意识的中国人不得不寻求新的方法来拯救国家。--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Guo Lu 郭露==

1. 丝绸之路是古代横贯亚欧的通道。其起点一般认为是长安（今西安），其实它随朝代更替政治中心转移而变化。长安（今西安）、洛阳、平城（今大同）、汴梁（今开封）、北京曾先后为丝路起点。

The Silk Road is an ancient across of asia-europe. Its starting point is usually ascribed to Changan (now xian), actually the starting point is changed according to the changed political center. Changan (now Xian), Luoyang, Pingcheng (now Datong), Bianliang (today Kaifeng), and Beijing has been the starting point of the Silk Road.

The Silk Road was an ancient crossing between Asia and Europe. Its starting point is generally considered to be Chang'an (present-day Xi'an). In fact, it changes with the change of the political center of dynasties. Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), Luoyang, Pingcheng (present-day Datong), Wei Liang (now Kaifeng), Beijing has been the starting point of silk road.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 海上丝绸之路较之陆上，有共性，也有特性；有优势和潜力，也有难度和挑战。要推进21世纪海上丝绸之路建设，要在对接合作上下功夫。

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characters. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, I believe the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate our cooperation.

Compared with the Silk Road, the Maritime Silk Road shares similarities but also has its unique characteristics. It has its own set of advantages, potentials, as well as difficulties and challenges. Going forward, the success of the Maritime Silk Road of the 21st Century would require effective efforts to coordinate cooperation.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press during the period of the Eastward Spread of Western Learning deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.

4. 这场运动由士大夫们领导，比如李鸿章（1823——1901）和左宗棠（1812——1885），他们曾在太平起义中与政府军作战。1861到1894年间，现在成为大臣们的这些人负责建立了现代的机构，发展基础工业、通信和交通业并是军队现代化。

The movement was championed by scholar-generals like Li Hongzhang (1823—1901) and Zuo Zongtang (1812—1885), who had fought with the government forces in the Taiping Rebellion. From 1861 to 1894, leaders such as these, now turned scholar-administrators, were responsible for establishing modem institutions, developing basic industries, communications, and transportation, and modernizing the military.
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:01, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
1.张骞（前164年-前114年），字子文，西汉外交家、探险家，是“丝绸之路的开拓者”“东方的哥伦布”。前139年，张骞奉汉武帝之命，出使西域，打通了汉朝通往西域的道路，即赫赫有名的丝绸之路，促进了东西方文明的交流。汉武帝以军功封其为博望侯。史学家司马迁高度称赞了其出使西域。

Zhang Qian( B.C. 164- B.C. 114), whose style name is Ziwen, was the diplomat and explorer in Western Han dynasty. He was called as the pioneer of the Silk Road and the Columbus of the East. In B.C. 139, at the command of Emperor Wu of Western Han dynasty, Zhang Qian visited Western Regions and carved out a way, advancing the communication between the Eastern and Western civilization. Therefore, Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty granted him the title of Marquis Bowang with military merit. And Historian Sima Qian highly praised his work.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，分为东海航线和南海航线两条线路，主要以南海为中心。海上丝路萌芽于商周，发展于春秋战国，形成于秦汉，兴于唐宋，转变于明清，是已知最为古老的海上航线。海上丝绸之路途经100多个国家和地区，是中国与外国贸易往来和文化交流的海上大通道，推动了沿线各国的共同发展。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. It was divided into two routes, the East China Sea route and the South China Sea route, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road originated in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing dynasties. And it is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road, passing through more than 100 countries and regions, is a major maritime corridor for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries and has promoted the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. Divided into two routes, the East China Sea and the South China Sea, with the South China Sea as the center. The Maritime Silk Road sprouted in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, developed in the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period, formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, prospered in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route. The Maritime Silk Road passes through more than 100 countries and regions. It is a major maritime channel for trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, and promotes the common development of countries along the route.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，通常而言是指在明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思想的传入。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times. Generally speaking, it is the introduction of academic ideas from Europe and America in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and the early Ming and Early Ming Dynasties.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是19世纪60到90年代晚清洋务派进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，创办了一批近代军事工业。后期，以“求富”为旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，洋务运动宣告破产。洋务运动虽然没有使中国富强起来，但期间引进了西方先进的科学技术，客观上促进了民族资本主义的产生和发展。

The Westernization Movement was a self-help movement carried out by the Westernization Group of the Qing Dynasty from the 1960s to the late 1990s, which introduced western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty. In the early stage, the Westernization Movement established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement". In the later period, under the banner of "seeking wealth", lots of civil industries were set up. In the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the entire Beiyang Navy was wiped out, and the Westernization Movement was bankrupt. Although Westernization Movement did not make China rich and powerful, it drew in advanced science and technology from the West, which objectively promoted the emergence and development of national capitalism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
1.人们通常讲"丝绸之路"的开端,都是从汉代张骞通西域开始,他的"凿空"事业居功至伟,标志着"丝绸之路"的正式开通。

People usually talk about the beginning of the "Silk Road", are from the Han Dynasty, Zhang Qian through the Western Regions began, his "chiseling" business is a great credit, marking the official opening of the "Silk Road".

2.在15世纪的明朝永乐时期,郑和七下西洋,将先进的中华物质文化、精神文化和政教文化远播海外,谱写了人类航海史上的新篇章,稳定了当时的东南亚国际秩序,开辟了中国—印度洋航路,将古代海上丝绸之路推向鼎盛。

In the 15th century, during the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He made seven trips to the West, spreading advanced Chinese material, spiritual, political and religious culture overseas, writing a new chapter in the history of human navigation, stabilizing the international order in Southeast Asia at that time, opening up the China-Indian Ocean route, and bringing the ancient Maritime Silk Road to its heyday.

During the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty in the 15th century, Zheng He made seven voyages to the West, spreading advanced Chinese material culture, spiritual culture, and political and religious culture abroad, writing a new chapter in the history of human navigation, stabilizing the international order of Southeast Asia at that time, and opening up The China-Indian Ocean Route pushed the ancient Maritime Silk Road to its peak.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.近代的西学东渐,对中国社会产生了广泛而深远的影响,改变了中国人对外部世界的认识。几乎所有的西学门类,以及各种各样的思潮、学说、观念都先后传入中国,在新与旧、古与今、中与外的碰撞中,中国的各种学术得到了极大的开拓和发展。

The Western learning in modern times had a wide and far-reaching impact on Chinese society and changed the Chinese people's understanding of the outside world. Almost all the Western disciplines, as well as all kinds of ideas, doctrines and concepts, were introduced to China one after another, and in the collision between the old and the new, the ancient and the modern, and the Chinese and the foreign, Chinese scholarship was greatly developed.

The spread of western learning in modern times has had a broad and far-reaching impact on Chinese society, and changed the Chinese people's understanding of the outside world. Almost all Western learning disciplines, as well as various ideological trends, doctrines, and concepts have been introduced to China. In the collision of new and old, ancient and modern, and China and foreign countries, various academic studies in China have been greatly developed. And development.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是我国近代教育史的开端,可以说,它不仅是对我国传统教育的一次重要变革,更是我国现代教育制度萌芽的一个重要时期。
The westernization movement is the beginning of China's modern education history, it can be said that it is not only an important change to China's traditional education, but also an important period for the sprouting of China's modern education system.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The Westernization Movement is the beginning of modern education history in our country. It can be said that it is not only an important change to our traditional education, but also an important period of the germination of our modern education system.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
1.1417年，永乐皇帝下令郑和将使节送回国内。郑和和他的舰队再次回到海上启航，进行他的第五次远征（1417-1419）。他在许多相同的地方停留，包括爪哇岛、苏门答腊岛，还为他遇到的不同的统治者带来了信件和财富。

By 1417, the Yongle Emperor ordered Zheng He to return the envoys home. Once more back on the seas, Zheng He and his large fleet set sail for his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped in many of the same places, including Java, Sumatra, and also brought letters and riches to the different rulers Zheng He met.

In 1417, Emperor Yongle ordered Zheng He to send the envoys back home. Zheng He and his fleet returned to sea again to set sail on his fifth expedition (1417-1419). He stopped at many of the same places, including Java and Sumatra, and also brought letters and wealth to the different rulers he met. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路从福建泉州开始, 是秦汉时期形成、三国时期发展到隋朝、盛唐宋朝、明清衰落的最早航程航线。

Starting from Quanzhou Fujian Province, the maritime Silk Road was the earliest voyage route that was formed in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties.

The Maritime Silk Road began in Quanzhou, Fujian Province, and was the earliest voyage route formed during the Qin and Han dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms Period to the Sui dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and fell into decline in the Ming and Qing dynasties. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐不仅客观上促成了马克思主义哲学在中国的广泛传播, 构成了马克思主义哲学中国化的一个重要历史前提, 而且引发了中国哲学历史发展过程中的重大变革, 推动了中国哲学从古代传统向近代传统的转变。

The spread of Western learning to the East objectively promoted the dissemination of Marxist philosophy, forming an important historical precondition for its Sinicization. Moreover, it triggered a great transformation in the historical development of Chinese philosophy and facilitated its transition from an ancient to an early modern tradition.

The eastward spread of Western learning has not only objectively contributed to the widespread dissemination of Marxist philosophy in China, constituting an important historical premise for the Chineseization of Marxist philosophy, but also triggered a major change in the historical development of Chinese philosophy, promoting the transformation of Chinese philosophy from the ancient to the modern tradition. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.鸦片战争、不平等条约和19世纪中叶的大规模起义的残酷现实，使清朝朝臣和官员认识到壮大中国的必要性。自19世纪40年代以来，中国学者和官员一直在研究和翻译“西学”。

The rude realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mid- 19th century mass uprisings caused Qing courtiers and officials to recognize the need to strengthen China. Chinese scholars and officials had been examining and translating "Western Learning" since the 1840s.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The harsh realities of the Opium War, the unequal treaties, and the mass uprisings of the mid-19th century made courtiers and officials of the Qing Dynasty realize the need to strengthen China. Since the 1840s, Chinese scholars and officials had been studying and translating "Western Learning". --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

1. 汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但西域开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。这条通道，就是后世闻名的“丝绸之路”。丝绸之路则成为“一带一路”的重要历史符号，使得我们高举和平发展的旗帜，积极发展与沿线国家的经济合作伙伴关系。

Although the missions to the western Regions in the Han Dynasty were originally aimed for military purposes, their influence went far beyond the military scope. This passageway was later known as the Silk Road. The silk road has become an important historical symbol of "One Belt And One Road", which makes us hold high the banner of peaceful development and actively develop economic partnership with countries along the route.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 郑和当时率领着世界上最强大的船队下西洋，带去的不是血与火、掠夺与殖民，而是瓷器、丝绸、茶叶。下西洋是世界航海史上的壮举，现在东南亚一带还有许多几年内郑和的建筑物，表达了人们对他的尊敬。

Leading the most powerful fleet in the world, Zheng He made seven voyages to the Western Seas, bringing there porcelain, silk and tea, rather than bloodshed, plundering or colonialism. Zheng He's voyages were a great feat in the world's navigation history. There are still many buildings in present Southeast Asia dedicated to his memory.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 自十七世纪开始的西学东渐，对明清之际实学思潮的兴起起到了催生作用。

Since the 17th century, the west knowledge spread to the east gradually, which accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasty.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

Eastward Spread of Western Learning starting from the 17th century accelerated the rise of ideological trend during the period of Ming and Qing dynasties.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。洋务教育是洋务派为了满足洋务运动的需要，培养洋务人才进行的教育变革。

The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enllightenment in China. Westernization education was an education reformation launched by Westernization Faction intending to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:03, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The historical role of the foreign affairs movement is not only in the economy, but also in the enlightenment of modern Chinese thought. Westernization education is the educational reform carried out by Westernization Faction in order to meet the needs of cultivating new-type talents.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.张骞先后两次出使西域，打开了中国与中亚、西亚、南亚以至通往欧洲的陆路交通，从此中国人通过这条通道向西域和中亚等国出售丝绸、茶叶、漆器和其他产品，同时从欧洲、西亚和中亚引进宝石、玻璃器等产品。

Zhang Qian has made two missions to the Western Regions, opening up the land transportation between China and Central Asia, West Asia, South Asia and even Europe. Since then, the Chinese have sold silk, tea, lacquerware and other products to the Western Regions and Central Asia and other countries through this road, while importing gems, glassware and other products from Europe, West Asia and Central Asia.

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, which was mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it was also known as the South China Sea Silk Road. The Maritime Silk Road was formed during the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed during the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which is the oldest maritime route known to people.

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术活动的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought various new academic achievements in modern West into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic activities, and many academic disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
1 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

The Overland Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC), when Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian on a mission to the western Regions. Starting from the capital Chang 'an (now Xi 'an), it passed through Gansu and Xinjiang, reached central Asia and West Asia, and connected the Mediterranean countries on land. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the starting point of the Silk Road was Luoyang. Its primary function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2 郑和具备军事才能，并且得到朱棣的信任。在朱棣决策下西洋时，郑和正当壮年。朱棣曾询问袁忠彻以郑和率军出使是否合适，袁忠彻认为合适。

Zheng He had military talents and Zhu Di trusted him. When Zhu Di was planning to the West, Zheng He was in his prime. Zhu Di had asked Yuan Zhongche whether Zheng was the right person on such massion. Yuan Zhongche thought he was appropriate.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3 徐光启较早师从利玛窦学习西方的天文、历法、数学、测量和水利等科学技术，毕生致力于科学技术的研究，勤奋著述，是介绍和吸收欧洲科学技术的积极推动者，为17世纪中西文化交流作出了重要贡献。

Xu Guangqi studied western science and technology such as astronomy, calendar, mathematics, measurement and water conservancy under Matteo Ricci. He devoted his whole life to the research of science and technology and wrote assiduously. He was an active promoter in introducing and absorbing European science and technology and made important contributions to the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the 17th century.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4 曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。

Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
1.丝绸之路沿途的大批历史文物、引人入胜的自然风景以及富有情趣的地方文化，使这一长途远游成了世界上最精彩的旅游项目之一。
A wealth of historical relics, fascinating scenery and interesting local cultures along the Silk Road make this long trip one of the world’s most exciting tourist attractions.

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用。
Zheng He's voyage to the West was an unprecedented feat in the history of world navigation in the early 15th century and played a positive role in economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.

3.西学东渐是指近代西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。
The Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historical process of the spread of western academic ideas to China in modern times.

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激了中国资本主义发展，并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。
Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism, it did not make China become prosperous and strong.--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

1.传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点。

The traditional silk road starts from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reaches the Mediterranean Sea through Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, etc. with Rome as the end point.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.在地文航海技方面，郑和下西洋的地文航海技术，是以海洋科学知识和航海图为依据，运用了航海罗盘、计程仪、测深仪等航海仪器，按照海图、针路簿记载来保证船舶的航行路线。

In terms of geographical navigation technology, Zheng He's geographical navigation technology was based on marine scientific knowledge and nautical charts. He used navigational instruments such as compass, log and depth sounder to ensure the navigation route of the ship according to the records of charts and needle books.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。

After the Sino Japanese War, because China was facing with the fate of national destruction, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.经过两次鸦片战争的失败，以及太平天国的打击，清朝内外交困，清朝的一部分官僚开始认识到西方坚船利炮的威力。为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。

After the defeat of the two Opium Wars and the attack of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Qing Dynasty was beset by internal and external troubles, and some of the bureaucrats in the Qing Dynasty began to realize the power of the western strong ships and cannons. In order to relieve domestic and foreign troubles, enrich the country and strengthen the army, and maintain the rule of the Qing Dynasty, they began to learn western culture and advanced technology.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:28, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但丝绸之路开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。

Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.

Although the Han Dynasty connected with the Western Regions for military purposes at first, its influence was far-reaching, well beyond the military scope after the opening of the Silk Road.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.明初工商业的恢复和发展，宋、元以来中国海外贸易的发达，对外移民的增加，所有这一切，都为郑和下“西洋”准备了坚实的经济基础和物质条件。

The recovery and development of industry and Commerce in the early Ming Dynasty, the development of China's overseas trade since the song and Yuan Dynasties, and the increase of foreign immigrants all prepared a solid economic foundation and material conditions for Zheng He's "western" voyage.

3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。

Matteo Ricci spread the western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which initiated the practice for the literati to absorb western learnings in the late Ming Dynasty.

Ricci spread western knowledge of geometry and geography as well as humanist views to Chinese society, opening the way for scholars in the late Ming Dynasty to absorb western studies.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.江南制造局虽是清末洋务派创办的规模最大的兵工厂，但是技术上仍是由外国技师垄断．

Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arms factory founded by Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, it was still monopolized by foreign technicians in the aspect of technique.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

Although Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau was the largest arsenal founded by the Westernization Group in the late Qing Dynasty, the technology was still monopolized by foreign technicians.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
1.建元二年（前139年），张骞率领100多名随行人员，由匈奴人堂邑父为向导从长安出发前往西域。西行进入河西走廊。这一地区自月氏人西迁后，已完全为匈奴人所控制。正当张骞一行匆匆穿过河西走廊时，不幸碰上匈奴的骑兵，他们全部被抓获。

In the second year of Jianyuan(139 B.C.), Zhang Qian set off to the Western Regions leading an entourage of more than 100 men from Chang'an under the guidance of Tang Yifu who is a Hun. They travelled westward into the Hexi Corridor which had been completely controlled by the Huns since they moved westward. When they tried to hurry through this region, unfortunately they met the Hun cavalry, and they were all captured.

2.郑和下西洋所到之处主要是开展贸易活动，以“朝贡贸易”为基本形式，同时推行“官方贸易”、带动“民间互市”等。

Zheng He's voyages are mainly to carry out trade activities, during which they took "tribute trade" as the basic activity, and at the same time promoted "official trade" and "non-governmental trade".

3.在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们，在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。

From the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, missionaries played an important role in the Eastward Spread of Western Learning. While trying to introduce Catholicism into China, the missionaries mainly composed of the Catholic Jesuits introduced western scientific and technological thoughts and translated a large number of western academic books.

4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。

During the 35 years of Westernization Movement, the development of cultural publishing reached an unprecedentedly high level. The translation of books experienced a process from the dominance of western scientific and technological works to the emphasis laid equally on works of natural and social sciences and humanities, and even the latter took the majority.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 12:15, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

1. In the second year of Jian Yuan (139 BC), Zhang Qian led more than 100 serve men, with the Xiongnu man Tang Yi as the guide, to set off from Chang’ an to the West. This area has been completely controlled by the Xiongnu since the westward migration of the Ziyue people. Just as Zhang Qian passed through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately ran into the Xiongnu cavalry, who captured them all.

2. Zheng He mainly carried out trade activities in all the places he visited, taking “tribute trade” as the basic form. At the same time, he also promoted “official trade” and “private mutual market”.

3. In the wave of Western learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, missionaries played an important role, mainly the Jesuit missionaries, who tried to introduce Catholicism into China, introduced Western scientific and academic ideas, and translated a large number of Western academic books.

4. During the 35 years’ Westernization Movement, the development of publishing reached an unprecedented level. The translation of books went through a process from purely Western scientific and technological works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences, humanities, etc., with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==
1-张谦出生于西汉（公元前206年至公元24年）的城固县（今陕西省城固县）。他是中国历史上杰出的使节和探险家，开辟了古老的丝绸之路，并带来了有关西部地区的可靠信息.

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-24 AD). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions.

Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu (the present Chenggu County of Shaanxi Province) of Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.). He was an outstanding envoy and explorer in Chinese history, opening up the ancient Silk Road and bringing reliable information about the Western Regions to China.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2-郑和（1371-1433）是一位伟大的中国探险家和舰队司令。他进行了七次主要探险，以探索中国皇帝的世界并在新地区建立中国贸易。

Zheng He (1371 - 1433) was a great Chinese explorer and fleet commander. He went on seven major expeditions to explore the world for the Chinese emperor and to establish Chinese trade in new areas.

Zheng He, a great Chinese explorer and fleet captain, has carrried out 7 major explorations to broaden Chinese emperor's world and establish Chinese trade in new regions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:02, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

3-西方的儒道教说，为中西文化交流做出了贡献。

The West Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.

The Chinese Confucian and Daoist doctrines in the West, and made contributions to cultural exchange between China and the West.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4-自强运动，又称为洋务运动（西洋运动或西洋运动）（约1861年至1895年），是鸦片战争的军事灾难后在清朝后期在中国发起的体制改革时期。

The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 09:43, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization Movenment or Western Affairs Movement ( c. 1861–1895), was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing Dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium Wars.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
1、丝绸之路是起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线，最初的作用是运输古代中国出产的丝绸、瓷器等商品，后来成为东方与西方之间在经济、政治、文化等诸多方面进行交流的主要道路。

The Silk Road was an ancient overland commercial and trade route connecting Asia, Africa and Europe that started from ancient China. Its initial function was to transport commodities such as silk and porcelain produced in ancient China. Later, it became the main road for economic, political and cultural exchanges between the East and the West.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举，对中外经济、文化交往起到了积极作用；郑和本人，也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。晚清以降，郑和研究获得迅速发展，但不少重要课题仍无定论。

Zheng He's voyages to the West were an unprecedented feat in the maritime history of the world at the beginning of the 15th century, which played a positive role in the economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. Zheng himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and memory of the world. Since the late Qing Dynasty, the study of Zheng has achieved rapid development, but many important issues are still not conclusive.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、徐光启，上海人，是自李时珍后的明代又一位杰出的科学家。他生于嘉靖41年即公元1562年，父亲是个小商人，家里有一点土地，但日子过得并不宽裕，所以徐光启从小就从事农业生产劳动，这对他后来的成长有很大影响。

Xu Guangqi, a Native of Shanghai, was another outstanding scientist in the Ming Dynasty after Li Shizhen. He was born in 1562, the year of the 41st emperor jiajing. His father was a merchant and his family had a little land, but his life was not very well-off. Therefore, Xu Guangqi was engaged in agricultural production and labor from an early age, which had a great influence on his later growth.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、曾国藩的崛起，对清王朝的政治、军事、文化、经济等方面都产生了深远的影响。在曾国藩的倡议下，建造了中国第一艘轮船，建立了第一所兵工学堂，印刷翻译了第一批西方书籍，安排了第一批赴美留学生。

Zeng Guofan's rise had a profound influence on the politics, military affairs, culture and economy of the Qing Dynasty. At Zeng's initiative, He built China's first ship, established the first military academy, printed and translated the first batch of Western books, and arranged for the first batch of overseas students to go to the United States.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
1.丝绸之路促进了中外经济文化的交流，也密切了汉族与沿途的其他少数民族的关系，促进了我国西北地区的开发。

The Silk Road has enhanced economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, as well as closer relations between the Han nationality and other minorities along the route, and promoted the development of the northwest China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.21世纪海上丝绸之路的战略合作伙伴并不仅限与东盟，而是增进同沿边国家和地区的交往，串起连通东盟、南亚、西亚、北非、欧洲等各大经济板块的市场链，发展面向南海、太平洋和印度洋的战略合作经济带，以亚欧非经济贸易一体化为发展的长期目标。

The strategic partners of the Maritime Silk Road in the 21st century are not only limited to ASEAN, but also to promote exchanges with countries and regions along the border, linking the market chains of ASEAN, South Asia, West Asia, North Africa, Europe and other major economic sectors, and developing a strategic cooperative economic belt for the South China Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean, with Asia-Europe and Africa economic and trade integration as the long-term goal of development.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.发生在明末清初并且延续到清朝中叶，伴随着耶稣会士来华传教而展开的西方科技传入中国的历史事件，被称为西学东渐第一波。它给中国科技发展带来了全新的可能性。

The historical event of the introduction of Western science and technology into China, which took place in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties and lasted until the middle of the Qing dynasty, accompanied by the Jesuits' mission to China, is known as the first wave of The Eastward Spread of Western Learning. It brings new possibilities to the development of science and technology in China.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动虽然有种种缺陷和弊端，但主要历史作用是积极的，是中国近代史上的一次进步运动。它促进了民族资本主义的发展，延缓了而不是加速了中国半殖民地化的进程。

Although the Westernization Movement has various defects and drawbacks, its main historical role is positive. As a progressive movement in the modern history of China, it promoted the development of national capitalism and delayed rather than accelerated the process of China's semi-colonization.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:10, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。

The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (BC 202-AD 8 ) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, with connection to Mediterranean countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.向西航行的郑和七下西洋：这是明朝政府组织的大规模航海活动，曾到达亚洲、非洲39个国家和地区，这对后来达·伽马开辟欧洲到印度的地方航线，以及对麦哲伦的环球航行，都具有先导作用。

Westward sailing of Zheng He's seven voyages was a large-scale sailing activity organized by the Ming government, which travelled 39 countries and regions in Asia and Africa, which had a pioneering effect on the Da Gamma’s opening up the local route from Europe to India, as well as on Magellan's worldwide voyage.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。中国人经过西学的洗礼，对于世界、历史发展、政治、经济、社会、自然界万事的看法，都有了巨大的改变。

The impact and the changes in Chinese thought and culture caused by Western learning can be rivaled only by the Hundred Schools of Thought in the history of China. After the baptism of Western learning, tremendous changes have been made on Chinese people's views on the world, historical development, politics, economy, society, and the whole nature.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.清政府统治集团内的一些开明人士为了维护清政府的封建统治，而采取了一系列“自强”“求富”的措施，虽然其目的是为了维护封建统治，但这一运动是符合历史潮流的。

Some enlightened people in the Qing government adopted a series of measures for "self-improvement" and "seeking wealth" in order to maintain the feudal rule of the Qing government. Although they were aimed to maintain the feudal government, this movement was in line with the historical trend.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 10:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
1. 张骞出使西域，既是一次极为艰险的外交旅行，同时也是一次卓有成效的科学考察。张骞对广阔的西域进行了实地的调查研究工作。
Zhang Qian's mission to the western regions was not only an extremely difficult diplomatic trip, but also an effective scientific investigation. Zhang Qian made a field investigation on the vast western regions.

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions was not only an extremely difficult and dangerous diplomatic trip, but also a fruitful scientific investigation. Zhang Qian conducted field investigation and research work on the vast Western Regions.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2. 十五世纪初期，郑和下西洋作为军事史上一项意义重大的事件，当前学术界从郑和下西洋的政治、经济及文化等角度对该事件的作用及影响进行了分析，鲜少从历史意义层面进行研究。郑和七次下西洋所到达的地区、实施的措施在人类航行史上占据至关重要的地位，了解郑和下西洋的历史意义非常必要。
At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academic circles have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.

At the beginning of the 15th century, Zheng He's voyages to the West was a significant event in the military history. At present, the academia have analyzed the role and influence of Zheng He's voyages from the political, economic and cultural perspectives, but rarely from the perspective of historical significance. The area Zheng He arrived at and the measures he took during his seven voyages to the West occupy an important position in the history of human navigation. It is necessary to understand the historical significance of Zheng He's voyages to the West.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:49, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。
During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period.

During the Wanli period of Ming Dynasty, western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach and bring western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while The development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4. 随着经济全球化的发展，国与国之间的界限已经减少了。中国不断引进西方的文化，外国也不断引进中国的文化。在这个过程中，中国从最原始的封建社会，也逐步走向西化。
With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China is constantly introducing western culture, and foreign countries are also constantly introducing Chinese culture. In this process, China gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 10:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

With the development of economic globalization, the boundaries between countries have been reduced. China continues to introduce Western culture, and foreign countries continue to introduce Chinese culture. In this process, China has gradually moved from the most primitive feudal society to Westernization.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳。它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

1.The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries. The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk from ancient China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

2.The "maritime Silk Road" is a maritime channel for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries. The road is mainly centered on the South China Sea, so it is also called the South China Sea Silk Road. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.

3.除了传教士之外，许多来华的官员、探险家等也成为传入西学的重要媒介，例如将领戈登对于中国洋务时期军事的影响。主持海关总税务司的赫德对于西方管理制度的引入，以及译介书籍、最早西方军乐队的引入都有影响。

3.Besides missionaries, many officials and explorers who came to China also became important media for the introduction of Western learning, such as general Gordon's influence on China's military during the Westernization period. Hurd, who presided over the General Revenue Department of customs, had an influence on the introduction of Western management system, the translation of books and the introduction of the earliest Western military band.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4.洋务运动内容涉及军事、政治、经济、外交等，以“自强”为名，兴办军事工业并围绕军事工业开办其他企业，建立新式武器装备的陆海军。洋务派经营的这些近代企业，是在不改变封建统治为前提下所办企业，具有很强的对外依赖性、封建性和一定程度的垄断性。

4.The Westernization Movement involved military affairs, politics, economy, diplomacy and so on. In the name of "self-improvement", the Westernization Movement set up military industry and other enterprises around the military industry to establish the army and Navy with new weapons and equipment. These modern enterprises managed by the Westernization clique were established on the premise of not changing the feudal rule, and had strong external dependence, feudalism and a certain degree of monopoly.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
1.2100多年前，中国汉代的张骞两次出使中亚，开启了中国同中亚各国友好交往的大门，开辟出一条横贯东西、连接欧亚的丝绸之路。千百年来，在这条古老的丝绸之路上，各国人民共同谱写出千古传诵的友好篇章。

The Silk Road first emerged more than 2,100 years ago during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-AD 24) after China's imperial envoy Zhang Qian twice visited Central Asia. It became a bridge between East and West, opening the door to friendly engagement between China and Central Asia. For two millennia, countless tales of everlasting friendship between peoples have been woven into this ancient network.

2.中国走的是一条和平发展之路。作为拥有五千年文明积淀的东方大国，中国人历来崇尚以和为贵，从来就没有对外扩张的基因。600多年前，郑和率领当时世界上最强大的船队七次远航太平洋和西印度洋，到访30多个国家和地区，没有侵占一寸土地。这对于当年热衷于殖民扩张的西方国家来说，简直是不可思议，但中国确实做到了。

China follows a path of peaceful development. China is a big country in the East with a five-thousand-year civilization. The Chinese believe in peace. There’s not a single bone of making external expansionism in the body of the Chinese. As early as over six hundred years ago, the Chinese navigator Zheng He led the biggest fleet in the world to the Pacific and west Indian Oceans on seven expeditions, visiting over thirty countries and regions, not taking a single inch of land. That was actually quite inconceivable for those Western powers who were busy making colonial expansion, but the Chinese did that.

3.在19世纪的西学东渐中，基督新教的教士也开始进入中国，天主教士也随口岸的开放来往各地，他们成立教会学校、医院，并开设印书馆、设立期刊、并译著大量各种书籍。对于西学的传入有很大贡献。

In the 19th century, Protestant priests also began to enter China, and Catholics also came with the opening of the ports. They established schools and hospitals, printed books, set up periodicals, and translated a large number of books. They contributed greatly to the Eastward Spread of Western learning。

4.在新航路的开辟，文艺复兴，宗教改革运动，资产阶级革命，产业革命的推动下，至洋务运动发生时，资本主义世界体系已初步完成，人类进入了一个新时期，这也是历史发展的必然。

Driven by the opening of new routes, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the bourgeois revolution, the industrial revolution, and by the time of the foreign affairs movement, the capitalist world system had been initially completed and mankind had entered a new period, which was a natural development of history.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Xie Fan 解帆==
1.张骞第一次虽然没有完成出使目的，但是对西域诸国的山川地理、风土民情等重要信息，有了非常细致全面的掌握。

Although Zhang Qian did not reach the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of the western countries.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although Zhang Qian did not arrive at the destination for the first time, he had a very detailed and comprehensive grasp of important information such as mountains, rivers, geography, people and local conditions of many western countries.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋，是15世纪初叶世界航海史上的空前壮举。郑和本人也在这一历史事件中展现出其外交才能、军事谋略以及精神品质，并赢得世人的尊重和纪念。

Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He, showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event, and won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's voyage was an unprecedented achievement in the world's maritime history in the early 15th century. Zheng He himself showed his diplomatic skills, military strategies and spiritual qualities in this historical event who has won the respect and honor of the world.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。

After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

After the War of 1894, as China was reduced to separation, many people of insight began to learn from the Western countries more actively and comprehensively. At that time appeared Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Si-tong and other thinkers.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.戊戌变法是一次具有爱国救亡意义的变法维新运动，是中国近代史上一次重要的政治改革，也是一次思想启蒙运动。

The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, an important political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Hundred Days' Reform is a movement with the significance of patriotic salvation, a significant political reform in modern China's history, as well as an ideological enlightenment movement.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 11:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

1.丝绸之路是古代中国联系中亚、西亚、非洲和欧洲的交通要道。19世纪，德国一个地理学家首次使用“丝绸之路”这一术语，一直沿用到今天。期初，它指从中国新疆到中亚的陆地通道。

The Silk Road was a general name for the ancient strategic transportation channel which started from China and passed through Central Asia, West Asia, Africa and Europe. In the 19th century, when the name of Silk Road was first used by a German geographer, it just included the land road from China’s Xinjiang to Central Asia.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

2.海上丝绸之路在时间和空间上经过了长期的发展，在东方各国共同的经营下，形成了东方历史上一道独特而壮丽的风景，至今仍然承载着东方文明的传统。

The Maritime Silk Road has gone through long-term development in time and space. Under the joint management of eastern countries, it has formed a unique and magnificent scenery in the history of the East and still carries the tradition of eastern civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

3.中华文明是古代六大原生文明之一，由于所处的独特地理位置，中华文明的发展一直具有极强的独立性，较少受到其他文明的影响。但随着历史向前发展，中国与世界的联系也更为密切，直到明末清初“西学东渐”，中国人才第一次系统地接触到西方文明。

The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history progressed, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

The Chinese civilization is one of the six ancient civilizations. Due to its unique geographical location, the development of the Chinese civilization has always been highly independent and less influenced by other civilizations. As history moving forward, however, China became more connected with the rest of the world. It was not until the eastward spread of western learning in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty that Chinese people formed systematic knowledge about western civilization.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

4.洋务运动创办了近代中国由国人自办的最早一批军用和民用近代企业，揭开了中国资本主义生产方式的序幕。

The Westernization Movement established the first modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

The Westernization Movement established the first bunch of modern military and civilian enterprises run by Chinese people in modern China, which provided an opening for capitalist production in China.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

1. 丝绸之路经济带，是在古丝绸之路概念基础上形成的一个新的经济发展区域。包括西北五省区陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆。

1. Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region formed on the basis of the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang.

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient Silk Road. It includes the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:03, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

The Silk Road Economic Belt is a new economic development region based on the ancient one. It covers the five northwestern provinces—Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 16:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

2. Maritime Silk Road is a maritime route of trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries, also known as “Maritime Ceramic Road” and “Maritime Spice Road”, first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavan in 1913.

The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 西学东渐是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程，虽然也可以泛指自上古以来一直到到当代的各种西方事物传入中国，但通常而言是指明末清初以及晚清民初两个时期之中，欧洲及美国等地学术思传入。

3. The Eastward Spread of Western Learning is a historical process of spreading Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things into China from ancient times to contemporary times, but usually refers to the introduction of academic thought from Europe and the United States in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.

Western learning refers to the historical process of the dissemination of Western academic thought to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times. Although it can also refer to the introduction of various Western things from ancient times to the present time into China, it usually refers to the end. During the early Qing Dynasty and the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republican period, academic ideas were introduced into Europe and the United States.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。这些卓识远见表明近代向西方学习的思潮的始初就和爱国精神交融在一起。

4. After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of the barbarians and “learn from them in order to control them”. These insights show that the modern trend of learning from the West was intertwined with the spirit of patriotism from the very beginning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:34, 24 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

1.明代中期以后，政府采取了闭关锁国的政策，与此同时，造船技术和航海技术不断发展，海上交通代之而起，使丝绸之路贸易全面走向衰落。

After the mid-Ming Dynasty, the government adopted a policy of shutting down the country. At the same time, shipbuilding technology and navigation technology continued to develop, and maritime traffic took its place, causing the Silk Road trade to decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

After the middle of Ming Dynasty, the government adopted the policy of self-seclusion. At the same time, the shipbuilding technology and navigation technology developed continuously, and the maritime transportation replaced it, which made the Silk Road trade decline in an all-round way.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和，这位航海史上的先驱，以智慧为舵，扬起和平的风帆，缔造了世界航海业发展的里程碑，厚植了“一带一路”的文化底色与民心基石，书写了中国同其他国家友好交往的千古佳话。

Zheng He, a pioneer in the history of navigation, took wisdom as the rudder and raised the sail of peace. He created a milestone in the development of the world’s navigation industry. An eternal story of friendly exchanges between countries.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.利玛窦向中国社会传播了西方的几何学、地理学知识以及人文主义的观点，开了晚明士大夫学习西学的风气。

Matteo Ricci spread Western geometry, geography knowledge, and humanistic views to Chinese society, and developed the ethos of scholar-officials in the late Ming Dynasty to learn Western studies.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Matteo Ricci spread the Western knowledge of geometry, geography and humanism to the Chinese society, which opened the atmosphere for the literati to learn western learning in the late Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
1、丝绸之路经过亚洲、中东、北非和欧洲。几个世纪以来，丝绸之路是东西方交流的最重要的线路。尽管名字叫丝绸之路，人们进行贸易的商品却不仅仅是丝绸。玄奘和马可·波罗都留下了他们丝绸之路之旅的详尽记录。

The Silk Road went through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road was the most important line of communication connecting East and West. Although it's called the Silk Road, people traded much more than silk. Both Xuan Zang and Marco Polo left detailed records of their journeys along the Silk Road.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The Silk Road passes through Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. For centuries, the Silk Road has been the most important route for exchanges between East and West. Although it is called the Silk Road, the goods people trade are not just silk. Both Xuanzang and Marco Polo kept detailed records of their Silk Road journey. --[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、郑和（1317-1435）是中国最有名的探险家之一。1405至1433年间，郑和完成了七次著名的航行。他游览了亚洲和非洲的许多国家。郑和还从他游览的国家带回来很多礼物，像药品，珍珠和珍禽异兽。

Zheng He (1371-1435) was one of China's most famous explorers. Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

As one of China's most famous explorers,Zheng He completed seven famous voyages between 1405 and 1433. He visited many countries in Asia and Africa. Zheng He also brought back many gifts from the countries he visited, such as medicines, pearls and strange animals.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、在西学东渐大潮中兴起的近代报刊改变了传统的审美机制，使美学从内容到形式都发生了根本性的变化，从而促成了中国美学的现代转型。

The rising modern press deeply transformed the traditional aesthetic mechanism from the content to the form. Then the modern press has facilitated the modern reforms of Chinese esthetics.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The modern newspapers and periodicals that emerged in the tide of western learning changed the traditional aesthetic mechanism, and caused a fundamental change in aesthetics from content to form, thus contributing to the modern transformation of Chinese aesthetics.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动是部分先进的中国人探索中国近代化的过程。太平天国运动加速了中国近代历史的进程，推动了洋务运动的勃兴。洋务运动的历史作用不仅仅表现在经济上，其对中国近代思想启蒙的影响也是巨大的。

Westernization Movement is the process in which some Chinese with advanced knowledge explore how to modernize China. The Taiping movement accelerated the progress of China's modern history and promoted the Westernization movement. The effect of Westernization Movement in history is not only on economy but also greatly on contemporary ideological enlightenment in China.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
1公元前2世纪，中国就开始开辟通往西域的丝绸之路。汉代使节(envoy)张骞于公元前138年和 119年两次出使西域。
In the 2nd century BC, China began working on the Silk Road leading to the Western Regions. In138 BC and 119 BC, envoy Zhang Qian of the Han Dynasty made a trip to these regions respectively.

2，西汉时期,中国的商船队就到达了印度和斯里兰卡(Sri Lanka),用中国的丝绸换取了琉璃(colored glaze)、珍珠等物品。
In the Western Han Dynasty, China's merchant fleets sailed to as far as India and Sri Lanka to trade China's silk for colored glazes, pearls and other products.

3，唐代是中国历史上对外交流的活跃期。据史料记载，与唐代通使交好的国家多达70多个,那时候的首都长安云集了来自各国的使臣、商人和留学生。这种大交流使中华文化远播世界,也促进了各国文化和物产传入中国。
The Tang Dynasty saw dynamic interactions between China and other countries. According to historical documents, th Tang Dynasty exchanged envoys with over 70 countries, and Chang' an, the capital of Tang, bustled with envoys, merchants and students from other countries. 'Exchanges of this magnitude helped the spread of the Chinese culture to the rest of the world and the introduction of the culture and products from other countries into China.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

1.张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过"丝绸之路"迅速向四周传播。

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and The Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since its opening in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the Maritime Silk Road has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.

3.西学东渐所造成中国思想文化的影响和变化之大，在中国历史上只有百家争鸣可以与之媲美。

The influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture brought by the eastward dissemination of Western learning can only be matched by the contention of a hundred schools of thought in Chinese history.

4.洋务运动推动了近代中国生产力的发展，促使了中国民族资本主义的产生。

Westernization movement advanced the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:47, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

1.Zhang Qian's mission to the Western regions was originally to implement the strategic intention of emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty to unite with the Yuezhi clan to fight against the Xiongnu. However, after his mission to the Western regions, there were frequent cultural exchanges between the Han and the Barbarians, and the civilization of the Central Plains rapidly spread around through the "Silk Road".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road in Qin and Han Dynasties, it has been a significant bridge for economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.In Chinese history, only contention of a hundred schools of thought can match the great influence and change of Chinese ideology and culture caused by the the eastward spreading of western learning.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.The Westernization Movement promoted the development of productive forces in modern China and the emergence of Chinese national capitalism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

1."海上丝绸之路"是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路形成于秦汉时期，发展于三国至隋朝时期，繁荣于唐宋时期，转变于明清时期，是已知的最为古老的海上航线。

The "South China Sea Silk Road" is also known as the Maritime Cultural Communication Center of China. The maritime silk road was formed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to the Sui Dynasty, flourished in the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed into the Ming and Qing Dynasties. It is the oldest known maritime route.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只最多（240多艘）、海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，比欧洲国家航海时间早几十年，是明朝强盛的直接体现。

Zheng He's voyages to the West were the largest, the largest number of ships (more than 240), the largest number of seafarers and the longest voyages in ancient China. They were decades earlier than those of European countries. They were the direct manifestation of the prosperity of the Ming Dynasty.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西方传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, Western missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, bringing Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese ideology and culture. At this time, Western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of science and technology in China was relatively slow, lagging behind Europe in the same period. Missionaries not only spread Christian doctrine, but also introduced a lot of science and technology.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动的最根本的指导思想是"自强"、"求富"。其分类思想就是"师夷制夷" 、"中体西用" 八个字。前四个字"师夷制夷" 表明洋务运动与外国资本主义侵略者的关系，即学习西方的长技用以抵制西方的侵略。

The most fundamental guiding ideology of Westernization Movement is "self strengthening" and "seeking wealth". Its classification thought is "learning from foreigners, controlling foreigners" and "Chinese style and western use". The first four words "learning from foreigners and controlling foreigners" indicate the relationship between the Westernization Movement and foreign capitalist invaders, that is, learning from Western long-term skills to resist Western aggression.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:06, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。

The smooth and prosperous development of the Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty also further accelerated the ideological and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, causing a lot of positive and far-reaching influences on the development of mutual social and national ideologies in the future.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

宋代海上丝绸之路的持续发展，大大增加了朝廷和港市的财政深收入，一定程度上促进了经济发展和城市化生活，也为中外文化交流提供了便利条件。

The continuous development of the Maritime Silk Road in the Song Dynasty greatly increased the deep financial income of the imperial court and the port city, promoted the economic development and urban life to a certain extent, and also provided convenient conditions for the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展，

The eastward spread of Western learning brought various new academic achievements of modern Western learning into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines. Under such an influence, many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。

The total annihilation of the Beiyang Navy in the Sino-Japanese War marked the complete loss of naval power in the Qing Dynasty and the bankruptcy of the 35-year-old Westernization Movement.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:00, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。

In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In 123 B.C., Zhang Qian accompanied the great general Wei Qing on a mission to the Xiongnu. Under his guidance, the Xiongnu harassment of the Han dynasty in the north for many years was quelled, and Zhang Qian was thus made the Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He's fleet consisted of 300 ships and more than 30,000 sailors, the largest ship in the fleet was called the "treasure ship", with a hull length of 133 meters and as many as nine masts, which could carry 1,000 people. Zheng He and the Chinese and Muslim crews together opened up Chinese trade routes in Africa, India and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。

In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, under the impact of the wave of "Western learning", traditional children's education entered the threshold of modern times.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。

The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The westward movement contributed to the rapid development of agriculture, industry, and transportation, as well as to the urbanization of the United States.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:00, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

丝绸之路是汉唐千余年间中外经济、文化交流的重要通道，为汉朝的强大，乃至整个中华民族的强大奠定了坚实的基础。
Silk Road, a significant path of economic and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries during the Han and Tang Dynasty, which lasted for over thousand years, laying a solid foundation for greatness of the Han Dynasty, and even that of the whole Chinese nation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

回望历史，浩浩荡荡，郑和七下西洋堪称中国“海上丝绸之路”最壮丽的诗篇，也是人类航海史第一个高峰。
Looking back at the history, Zheng He’s seven voyages to the wast was the most magnificent poem of China’s “Maritime Silk Road”, as well as the first peak in the history of human navigation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

鸦片战争后，他们的基本思想就是了解夷情,“师夷长技以制夷”。
After the Opium War, their basic idea was to understand the situation of foreigners and "learn from the advanced technologies in the West in order to resist the invasion of the Western powers.”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。
Westernization Movement, also known as self-improvement movement, was a self-saving movement that westernization school in the late Qing Dynasty introduced western military equipments, machine production, science and technology to save the rule of Qing Dynasty from 1860s to 1990s.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 12:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

1. 丝绸之路全长约7000公里，经由这条线路所进行的贸易中，中国的丝绸最具代表性，因此得名“丝绸之路”。

The total length of the silk road is about 7000 km. Among the trade carried out along this route, China's silk is the most representative, so it is named the "Silk Road". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 在中国，作为国家的政治任务，郑和下西洋对于中国的经济的刺激作用微乎其微。而在西方，东方的商品和航海贸易的利润直接加速了资本主义的原始积累。

In China, as a national political task, Zheng He's Voyages had little stimulating effect on China's economy. However, in the west, the profits from the eastern commodity and maritime trade directly accelerated the primitive accumulation of capitalism. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. 甲午战争以后，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。

After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, many people with breadth of vision began to learn from the West more actively and comprehensively, and a group of thinkers such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong appeared. They learned a lot from the West about natural science and social science, and demanded political reform. During this period, a large amount of Western knowledge was introduced into China, and its influence was very extensive. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 洋务运动前期，洋务派以“自强”为旗号，采用西方先进生产技术，创办了一批近代军事工业。

In the early stage of Westernization Movement, the School of Westernization established a number of modern military industries under the banner of "self-improvement" and adopting advanced western production technology. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:56, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

In the early stage of Westernization Movement, under the banner of "self-improvement",the School of Westernization adopted advanced western production technology and established a number of modern military industries.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:21, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

1. 陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。

The overland Silk Road originated in the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 years ago). Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the Western Regions to open up an overland route starting from the capital Chang'an (now Xi'an), passing through Gansu and Xinjiang, to Central and West Asia, and connecting Mediterranean countries.

2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险

Zheng He's voyage to the West was the largest sea voyage in ancient China with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. It was also the largest series of sea explorations in world history before the voyage of the great geographical discovery in Europe at the end of the 15th century.

3. 尽管如此，纵观中国近代西学东渐的历史,它的成就是巨大的。虽然经历了由表及里、由浅入深的艰难探索和吸收过程,但毕竟使中国的近代化历程大大加速,客观上加快了清王朝灭亡的脚步,为中国早日推翻一个旧世界,建立一个新世界奠定了基础。但墨守成规、亦步亦趋的学习心理使中国的每一步学习都事倍功半,成效大打折扣.学习中的'一边倒'现象和盲目照搬现象使中国的西学东渐走了许多弯路,学习中的'急功近利'思想也是造成西学东渐成效甚微的重要原因。

In spite of this, looking at the history of the spread of western learning to the east in modern China, its achievements are huge. Although it has gone through a difficult process of exploration and absorption from the outside to the inside and from the shallow to the deep, it has greatly accelerated China's modernization process, objectively accelerated the pace of the demise of the Qing Dynasty, and laid a foundation for China to overthrow an old world and establish a new world as soon as possible. However, the learning psychology of sticking to the rules and following the same trend makes every step of China's learning get twice the result with half the effort and the effect is greatly reduced. The phenomenon of "one-sided" and blind copying in learning have led to many detours in the spread of western learning to the east in China, and the thought of "eager for quick success and instant benefits" in learning is also an important reason for the little effect of the spread of western learning to the east.

4. 洋务运动后期，洋务派为解决军事工业资金、燃料、运输等方面的困难，打出“求富”的旗号，兴办了一批民用工业。

In the late period of the Westernization Movement, in order to solve the difficulties in capital, fuel and transportation of military industry, the Westernization Movement set up a number of civilian industries under the banner of "seeking wealth".
--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 03:18, 28 December 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.通过张骞的外交实践，构建了汉朝与西方国家友好交往的桥梁，促进了东西方文化、经济的交流和发展，为中国汉代昌盛和后世的对外开放奠定了坚实的基础。

Through Zhang Qian's diplomatic practice, he built a bridge of friendly relations between the Han Dynasty and the West, promoting cultural and economic exchanges and development between the East and the West, and laying a solid foundation for the prosperity of the Han Dynasty and the opening up of China to the outside world in later generations.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和下西洋折射出的中国先进航海科技光辉，表现了中国古代人的伟大智慧，从而创造了郑和下西洋的伟大航程。

Zheng He's voyage to the West reflected the glory of China's advanced navigation technology and demonstrated the great wisdom of ancient Chinese people, thus creating the great voyage of Zheng He to the West.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The Eastward Spread of Western learning refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thoughts to China from the end of the Ming Dynasty to modern times.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.甲午中日战争中，北洋海军全军覆没，标志着清朝海军实力的完全丧失，也标志着35年的洋务运动宣告破产。

In the Sino-Japanese War of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Beiyang Navy was wiped out, marking the complete loss of the Qing Dynasty's naval power and the bankruptcy of the 35-year Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:33, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
1.东汉时期丝绸之路的起点在洛阳，它的最初作用是运输中国古代出产的丝绸。

The starting point of the Silk Road in the Eastern Han Dynasty was Luoyang. Its original function was to transport silk produced in ancient China.

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. It was also called the "Maritime Ceramic Road" and the "Sea Spice Road".

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝后期到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

The spread of Western learning to the east refers to the historical process of the spread of Western academic thought to China from the late Ming Dynasty to modern times.

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The Westernization Movement, also known as the self-improvement movement. It was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization School in the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to bring in Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

1. 张骞出使西域本为贯彻汉武帝联合大月氏抗击匈奴之战略意图，但出使西域后汉夷文化交往频繁，中原文明通过“丝绸之路”迅速向四周传播。

Zhang Wei out of the Western Region to carry out the Han Wu Emperor United Moon's strategic intention to fight against the Hunnu, but out of the Western Region after the Hanyi cultural exchanges frequent, the Central Plains civilization through the "Silk Road" spread rapidly around.

2. 郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。

Zheng He's Voyage to the West Was the largest, largest and longest maritime voyage in ancient China, and the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the great geographical discovery of Europe at the end of the 15th century.

3. 在明末清初的一波西学东渐中，传教士扮演著相当重要的角色，当时主要以天主教耶稣会为主的传教士们（较晚亦有方济各会、多明我会等的教士），在试图将天主教传入中国的同时，引介了西方的科技学术思想，译著了大量的西方学术相关书籍。

Missionaries played a very important role in a wave of Western studies in the late Ming and early Qing years, when the missionaries, mainly Catholic Jesuits (later franciscans, polyseigns, etc.), introduced Western scientific and technological academic ideas and translated a large number of Western academic books while trying to introduce Catholicism to China.

4. 甲午战争的结果给中华民族带来空前严重的民族危机，大大加深了中国社会半殖民地化的程度；另一方面则使日本国力更为强大，为其跻身列强奠定了重要基础。

The result of the Sino-Japanese War brought unprecedented serious national crisis to the Chinese nation, which greatly deepened the degree of semi-colonization of Chinese society, and on the other hand, made Japan stronger and laid an important foundation for its ranks among the great power.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:22, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
1.“丝绸之路”是指起始于古代中国，连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代陆上商业贸易路线。

Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which started in the ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Silk Road refers to the ancient land trade route which originated from ancient China and connected Asia, Africa and Europe.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.“海上丝绸之路”是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，该路主要以南海为中心，所以又称南海丝绸之路。

Maritime Silk Road is the sea-lane by through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with other countries. This Silk Road is mainly centered with the South China Sea, thus is called the South China Sea Silk Road as well. --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Maritime Silk Road is the sea route through which ancient China traded and did cultural exchanges with foreign countries. This Silk Road centered on the South China Sea, thus being called the South China Sea Silk Road as well.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐，是指从明朝末年到近代的西方学术思想向中国传播的历史过程。

Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic process of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty and the modern times.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Eastward Spread of Western Learning refers to the historic course of the spread of western academic thought to China from the end of Ming Dynasty to the modern times.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动。是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, is a self-helping movement carried out by the late Qing dynasty in the 1860s and 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to save the Qing dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Westernization Movement, also known as Self-strengthening Movement, was a self-helping movement carried out by the westernization group of the late Qing dynasty from the 1860s to 1990s for introducing Western military equipment, machine production and science and technology to China to save the Qing government.--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1.张骞到大宛后，向大宛国王说明了自己出使月氏的使命和沿途种种遭遇，希望大宛能派人相送，并表示今后如能返回汉朝，一定奏明汉皇，送他很多财物，重重酬谢。大宛王本来早就风闻东方汉朝的富庶，很想与汉朝通使往来，但苦于匈奴的中梗阻碍，未能实现。汉使的意外到来，使他非常高兴。

After arriving in Dayuan, Zhang Qian explained to the king of Dawan his mission and experiences along the way, and hoped that Dawan could send men to escort him to the Darouzhi. He also said that if he could return to the Han Dynasty in the future, he would tell the emperor of Han and implore him to send a lot of wealth and rewards to the The the king of Dawan. The King of Dawan had long heard of the wealth of the Han Dynasty and wanted to communicate with Han, but he failed to do so because of the hindrance from the Xiongnu. The unexpected arrival of han Emissary made him very happy.

2.郑和下西洋是中国古代规模最大、船只和海员最多、时间最久的海上航行，也是15世纪末欧洲的地理大发现的航行以前世界历史上规模最大的一系列海上探险。

Zheng He's expeditions were the largest in ancient China, with the largest number of ships and sailors and the longest time. They were also the largest series of maritime expeditions in the history of the world before the voyages of European geographical discoveries at the end of the 15th century.

3.此时的西方科学技术开始迅速发展，而中国这时科学技术的发展较缓慢，相对落后于同时期的欧洲。传教士在传播基督教的教义同时，也传入大量科学技术。

At this time, western science and technology began to develop rapidly, while the development of Science and technology in China was relatively slow and lagged behind that in Europe at the same time. Missionaries spread the Christian doctrine, but also spread a lot of science and technology.

4.为了解除内忧外患，实现富国强兵，以维护清朝统治，开始学习西方文化及先进的技术，这样一部分人被称为洋务派。

In order to relieve domestic troubles and foreign invasion, enrich the country and strengthen the army to maintain the rule of Qing dynasty, some people began to learn Western culture and advanced technology, so they were called westernization Group.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

不仅是中国与这些国家进行交流，通过丝路，印度、东南亚、中东、非洲和欧洲之间的贸易交流也迅速活跃起来。

The Silk Road not only deepen exchanges between China and these countries, but also gave an impetus to trades between India, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Europe.

郑和下西洋的路线，被称为海上丝绸之路，那是一条向往陌生的海岸线的开放之路。

The sailing routes of Zheng He, also known as the Maritime Silk Road, was an open road symbolizing people's aspiration to unfamiliar coastlines.

明末清初,西方传教士来华传教,掀起了西学东渐的第一次高潮。

In the late Ming and early Qing dynasty, lots of western missionaries came to China , which brought the first upsurge of the Eastward spread of Western learning.

洋务运动的主要人物具有典型性和代表性的是张之洞和李鸿章。

The main figures of the Westernization Movement are Zhang Zhidong and Li Hongzhang.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
1.唐代丝绸之路的畅通繁荣，也进一步促进了东西方思想文化交流，对以后相互的社会和民族意识形态发展，产生了很多积极、深远的影响。

The prosperous Silk Road in the Tang dynasty also further promoted the exchange of thoughts and cultures between the east and the west, and had a lot of positive and far-reaching effects on the later development of both side’s social and national ideologies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.欧洲人相继进行全球性海上扩张活动，特别是地理大发现，开启了大航海时代，开辟了世界性海洋贸易新时代。西欧商人的海上扩张，改变了传统海上丝绸之路以和平贸易为基调的特性，商业活动常常伴随着战争硝烟和武装抢劫。

The European maritime expansion around the world, especially the discovery of the Age of Discovery, ushered in a new era of world trade in the oceans. The maritime expansion of western european merchants, often accompanied by war and armed robbery, changed the traditional sea route of Silk Road of peaceful trade.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展,但许多传统的学术受到西学的冲击。

The Eastward Spread of Western Learning brought to China various new academic achievements in modern times, deeply affecting the development of various academic disciplines. Many subjects which were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China were also developed under this influence. On the contrary many traditional academies have been impacted by Western academies.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动是近代教育的开端。要开始洋务运动，兴办洋务就必须要有精通洋务的人才，但是中国传统的科举制教育却远远无法满足洋务运动对人才的需要。因此兴办新式学堂，派遣留学生，就成了洋务运动进行下去的一项重要的举措。

Westernization Movement was the beginning of modern education. In order to start the Westernization Movement, it is necessary to have people who are proficient in Westernization, but the traditional imperial examination system in China can not meet the needs of the Westernization Movement. Therefore, the establishment of new schools and the dispatch of foreign students has become an important initiative of the Westernization Movement.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

1.Today, Zhang Qian's travels are associated with the major route of transcontinental trade, the Silk Road. His missions opened trade routes between East and West and exposed different products and kingdoms to each other through trade.

今天，张谦的旅行与跨大陆贸易的主要路线“丝绸之路”相关。他的任务打开了东西方之间的贸易路线，并通过贸易使不同的产品和王国相互接触。 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.Zheng He generally sought to attain his goals through diplomacy, and his large army awed most would-be enemies into submission. However, a contemporary reported that Zheng He "walked like a tiger" and did not shrink from violence when he considered it necessary to impress foreign peoples with China's military might.

郑和通常试图通过外交来实现自己的目标，他的大部队敬畏大多数可能成为敌人的敌人。然而，当代报道说，郑和“走得像老虎一样”，当他认为有必要用中国的军事力量打动外国人民时，并没有因为暴力而退缩。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.With the Jesuits coming to China to preach, the historical event of the introduction of Western science and technology into China was called the first wave of the introduction of Western learning to the East.

随着耶稣会士来到中国讲道，西方科学技术传入中国的历史性事件被称为第一波西方知识向东方传入的浪潮。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.By the time the Europeans launched an intensive drive to incorporate China at the beginning of the 1840s, the capitalist world economy was already completing the incorporation of other major new zones into its division of labour.

到1840年代初欧洲人开始大力整合中国时，资本主义世界经济已经在将其他主要的新地区纳入其劳动分工中。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 18:25, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

History of Translation Studies 9

2020-12-21T14:24:28Z

Yi Zichu: /* English Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
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='''Comparative Studies'''=

==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking Between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==

<center>Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663</center>
===Abstract===
The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.

===Key words===
language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture

===摘要===
英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。

===关键词===
语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化

===1. Introduction===
The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)

Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of cultural identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his cultural identity. While each culture also has its own peculiarities and can throw influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.

Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking is the brain’s generalized and indirect reflecting process of the general characteristics and laws of objective things.” (Liu Kuilin, 1989:9) It is a dynamic process of reflecting the objective facts and worlds. Hence it is largely influenced by the outside cultures. In general, different culture leads to different thinking patterns which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related like three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.

===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===

The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings.

===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===
When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking.

Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people to develop holistic thinking.

While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates the “subject-object dichotomy” and then explains the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logical conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.

Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationships between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.

In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. (1994: 84)

Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:

(1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)
我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)

(2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）
Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)

From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue.

Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some Chinese works, writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.

===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===

It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stresses the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the severe natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, the Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)

Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human beings are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being.

The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature.

Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked that authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 )

While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority use of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance:

The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能)
一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。

A good idea suddenly occur on me.
我突然想出了一个好主意。

The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers.

Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used to show their objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way.

It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” patterns are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance:

(1) 公交车来了。
There comes the bus.
(2) 我家有五口人。
There are 5 people in my family.

Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often uses the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.

===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===
Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain.

Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.

Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”.

Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tends to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.”

While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be demonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully exemplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.

葡萄美酒夜光杯，
欲饮琵琶马上催。— 王翰《凉州词》
With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,
Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.

无边落木萧萧下，
不尽长江滚滚来。—杜甫《登高》
The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,
The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.

In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography:
“To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”

“为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则
是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。”
There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.

Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.
智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）

In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.

===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===

According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2).
Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis.

And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.

While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself views the deductive method superior to the inductive one.

Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction have been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples:

(1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.
足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。

There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.

(2) 各位来宾，
女士们，先生们，朋友们：
Distinguished Guests,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Dear Friends,
在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！
With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.

Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.
诸位下午好。我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。

Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking.

Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.

===3. Conclusion===
The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison of four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.

While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two languages. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.

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--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 08:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==

===Abstract===

In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.

With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.

Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.

===Key words===

Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''

===摘要===

20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。

随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。

奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。

===关键词===

功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》

===Introduction===

Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His "Functional equivalence" theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory (Tan Kai 2011, 43).

Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====

Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field (Zhang Yimei 2020,180).

In 1964, Nida put forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of "dynamic equivalence" until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression "dynamic equivalence" was superseded by "functional equivalence" in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined "in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language (Nida 1969, 24). "

Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.

In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level (Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida 1993, 118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida 1995, 224).

====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====

Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898) （Zhang Xi 2014, 1):

"Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so (Yan Fu 2009, 202)."

Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2).

According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. "Faithfulness" emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. "Expressiveness" stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. "Elegance" reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Yan Fu 2009, 202):

"Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance. (Yan Fu 2009, 202)"

Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard "elegance". According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. "Elegance" now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard "elegance", the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

===Theoretial Foundation===

====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====

=====Modern Linguistic=====

Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics (Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately (Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64).

According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure (Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).

=====Information Theory=====

Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information (Nida 1964, 68).

Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation (Nida 1984, 34).

=====Social Semiotics=====

Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning (Zhu Haotong 2006, 65).

In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods (Nida 1993, 67).

====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====

=====Chinese Aesthetics=====

Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty (Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.

"Faithfulness" means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. "Expressiveness" means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. "Elegance" refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. "Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" reveal the essence of translation (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters (Guo Dingju 2013, 18).

Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance (Guo Dingju 2013, 19).

=====Literary Criticism=====

Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods (Guo Dingju 2013, 19).

On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works (Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation (Li Jianzhong 2009, 46).

There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels (Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).

===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===

====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====

=====About ''Vanity Fair''=====

''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition (Guo Dingju 2013, 21).

At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again (Thackeray 2006，178).

This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time (Guo Dingju 2013, 21).

The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness (Thackeray 2006, 89).

=====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====

There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).

Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).

====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====

Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.

=====At Lexical Level=====

In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943, 89), those are

(1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on;

(2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on;

(3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on;

(4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on;

(5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on;

(6) links, such as when, during, below and so on;

(7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on (Nida 1986, 20).

From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16).

Exampe 1:

ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)

TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗? (杨必 2013, 47)

In ST1, "Love" and "Beauty" are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words "Love" and "Beauty" to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates "Love" and "Beauty" into "痴情男子" and "美貌佳人" to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate "Love" and "Beauty" into "爱情" and "美人", the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.

=====At Syntactical Level=====

A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences. Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence (Nida 1946, 55). He thinks there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:

(1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;

(2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;

(3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;

(4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;

(5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;

(6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;

(7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.

The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences (Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text (Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation.

Example 2:

ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.
(Thackeray 2016, 75)

TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。
(Yang Bi 2013, 76)

In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences (Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.

(1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。

His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.

(2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。

He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.

(3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。

She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade.

(4) 她死后，他许下承诺。

He was hanged after her death.

(5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。

He would never take another of her sort.

(6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。

At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.

(7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。

He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.

In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.

====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====

The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.

=====At Lexical level=====

Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence (Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.

Example 3:

ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty? (Thackeray 2006, 138)

TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？ (杨必 2013, 47)

In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words "an image of Love" and "Beauty" to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).

If the words "prettier", "an image of Love" and "Beauty" are translated into "更好看" "爱情形象" "美人" respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, "痴情男子" "美貌佳人" and "赏心悦目" reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).

=====At Sentence Level=====

English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis (Guo Dingju 2013, 40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.

Example 4:

ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)

TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)

In the original sentence, the abstract words "behavior" and "reception" are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into "克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……" without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.

====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====

===== Similarities =====

Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.

One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent (Nida & Taber 1969, 22).

Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty (Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.

The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information (Nida 1969, 30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.

Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely (Guo Dingju 2013, 44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.

By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.

===== Differences =====

Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of "elegance". What’s more, the concrete explanation of "faithfulness" is not clear. Whether the target text should only be "faithful" to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence (Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard.

===Conclusion===

With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class (Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation.

From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures.

====Implements====

Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181).

What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper (Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.

====Limitations====

Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions.

===References===

Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.

Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.

Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986). ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press.

Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等 [On Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects (236) 94-97.

Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.

Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史 [History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.

Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''青年作家'' Young Writers (1) 43-44.

Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编 [A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言 [Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》 [''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.

Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译 [A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.

Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南 [A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.

Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等 [A Comparison on "Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance" and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House (2) 180-181.

Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考 [Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University (3) 62-65.

--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu 202070080618 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' .

===Key words=== eco-translatology; ''2019 Government Work Report''; multi-dimension transformation

===摘要===
近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。

===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论

===Introduction===
The ''Government Work Report'' of the State Council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the Prime Minister of State Court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003)

As the latest work report of the year, the ''2019 Government Work Report'' is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）

In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of ''Government Work Report'', which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the ''Government Work Report''. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of ''Government Work Report'' at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）

===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===

''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)

====1.1 Lexical Level ====
For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====
As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)

====1.2 Syntactic Level====
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand.

====1.3 Rhetorical Level ====
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)

In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations)
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure)
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability)

Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.

Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)

Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of ''Government Work Report'' vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)

===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===

Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）

====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed

====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====
=====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

=====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====
Language dimension refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）

===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.

====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)

====3.2 Cultural Dimension====
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The ''Government Work Report'' is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 Communicative Dimension====
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.

Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.

Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood.

In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

===Conclusion===

During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.

Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)

First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese ''Government Work Report'' from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the ''Government Work Report'' translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017)

However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)

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Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999.

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方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门.

胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.

黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28.

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童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97.

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周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.

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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center>
===Abstract===
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way.

Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.

===Key words===
Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories

===题目===
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》

===摘要===
奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。

另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。

===关键词===

奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论

===1.Introduction===

====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).

By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).

His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).

====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20).

In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20).

If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).

===2.Similarities and Differences===

====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).

=====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====
Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).

Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40).

Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20).

Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).

=====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).

He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40).

The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93).

Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).

====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).

Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20).

By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22).

=====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)

Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)

Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).

In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49).

=====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).

In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43).

In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).

Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).

=====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38).

In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38).

By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2).

Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).

===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===

====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====

=====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132).

Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159).

=====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38).

What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42).

====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====

=====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).

====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166).

Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).

===4.Conclusion===
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).

===References===

Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.

Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.

Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.

Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.

Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.

Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science & Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.

--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605 英语笔译==
<center>石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 20207080605</center>

===Abstract===
The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.

===Key words===
Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis

===摘要===
一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。

===关键词===
谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析

===Introduction===

====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====

In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, but also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)

Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, study the human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)

In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable that knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:22)

From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:

[[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]

====Yi Jing’s Translation System====
According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:197).

The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:198-200).

The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself(Yi Jing, 2009:200-215).

The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.(Yi Jing, 2009:215-268).

The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, and covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.(Yi Jing, 2009:215-268).--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. (Yi Jing, 2009:268-281).

The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:281-287).

From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:
[[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]

The translations of the above terms are as following:

[[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]

===Similarities and Differences===

====The Similarities between the Two systems====

=====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====

In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.

From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.

It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.

=====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====

In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.

For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).

Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.

=====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====
The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that "all translations must be faithful to the original text". Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as "faithful to the original content ", " faithful to the original form ", " faithful to the original effect ", " faithful to the original function" and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that "comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style" is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).

As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.
Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.

====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====

=====Different structures of translation system=====

From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.

Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.

=====Different views on the study of translation history=====

Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).

we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.

we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account. In addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

=====Different views on translation process=====

For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).

From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive.

===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===

====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====

=====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====

First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.

First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is， translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that "translatology is an independent discipline" is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.

Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of "harmony in diversity", which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.

=====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====

As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.

Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.

Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.

=====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====

The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.

The great influence and contributions of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field are obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====

=====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====
First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.
In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.

=====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====

However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.

Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.

Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.

=====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====

Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies.

===Conclusion===

This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.

===Refrences===

[1]Chen Fukan陈福康.(2000)中国译学理论史稿[A History of Translation Theory in China]].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.

[2]Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2016)当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起[The Pattern of Translation Studies in the World -- On the Rise of Chinese Translation Studies in the 21st Century] 外语教学理论与实践. Foreign Language Learning Theory and Pactice（3):55-63.

[3]Lan Hongjun蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究[From Subject Consciousness to Theoretical Construction: A Study of Chinese Translation Theory (1987-2017).]中国翻译.Chinese Translation(39):7-16.

[4]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1987)必须建立翻译学[Translatology muct be Established].中国翻译.Chinese Translation.(b3): 2-7.

[5]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2005)翻译学[A Series of Translation Studies in China].Wu Han:Hu Bei Education Press 武汉:湖北教育出版社,.

[6]Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009)翻译学概论[An Introduction to Translation Studies].Nan Jing:Yi Lin Press 南京:译林出版社.

[7]Yi Jing易经.(2009)试论翻译学体系的构建[On the Construction of the System of Translatology].Hu Nan Normal University 湖南师范大学.

==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==

胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060

==='''Abstract'''===
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.

==='''Key Words'''===
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence

===摘要===
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。

===关键词===
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值

===1.Introduction===
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.

In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc.

His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.

Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.

There are some similarities between Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Barnett's "cultural equivalence", but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the "similarities and differences" and "differences" between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.

===2.The background of the two translation theories===

Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics.

But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.

Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.

===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield.

Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.

Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of "Bible" translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).

===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.

According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.

===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===

===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".

3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"

"Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. "Mathematical equivalence" is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.

" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages.

The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.

3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.

3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.

As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.

To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that "reactions can never be the same," but that "a high degree of reaction equivalence" is required and possible; As for "functional equivalence", Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.

Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message.

He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).

3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.

（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)

“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)

If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.

(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)

“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)

The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).

(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)

“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)

"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.

===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===

According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.

3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.

Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.

3.2.2 Content and form of translation
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.

But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it.
Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.

3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation
Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the "intelligibility" of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.

3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.

3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples

原文:

“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)

辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"

韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )

"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.

原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)

辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )

韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )

Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.

===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===

Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)

But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.

===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.

Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.

Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).

===6. Conclusion===
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.

===References===

[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.

[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]

[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]

[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]

[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]

[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]

[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]

[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]

[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]

[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.

[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]

[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]

[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]

--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI 英语笔译==
<center> 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610</center>

===Abstract===

Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.

===Key words===

Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu

===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===
===摘要===

目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。

===关键词===

目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复

===1. Introduction===

Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248)

In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.

===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===

====2.1 Skopos Theory====

“Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.

=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====

The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.

(1) Katharina Reiss’s research

The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)

(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond

Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）

(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle

Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====

There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.

The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997)

Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition.

The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251)

These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.

====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====

Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）

Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）

=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====

(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”

The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago.

The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.

(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”

Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.

The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.

Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)

Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)

=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====

Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)

There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)

And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）

In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.

===3. Similiarities and Differences===

====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====

Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.

=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====

The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.

Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)

In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness", which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.

=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====

The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory.

In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32)

Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text.

At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.

=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====

The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent.

The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". Translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12)

While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.

====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====

Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

=====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====

Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed.

Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）

Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.

=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====

Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)

In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)

=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====

For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)

So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)

However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative.

As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .

===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===

Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.

====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====

When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242)

In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a "source of information", which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation.

More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.

Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu.

In particular, there are various new interpretations of "Elegance" in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)

====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====

Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996)

Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.

Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.

In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.

===5. Conclusion===

There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.

Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.

Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.

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Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==

<center>纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian </center>

===Abstract===

As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.

===Key words===

Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation

===题目===
性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究

===摘要===

张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。

===关键词===

张爱玲，性别，自译，他译

===1. Introduction===

Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)

In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them.

She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)

Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue & Mu Lei 2010: 67)

===2. Gender and Translation===

Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)

During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)

As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.

This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)

===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===

As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121).

In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).

Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)

Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.

====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====

In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)

ST：
（七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)

TT：
( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)

Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)

However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)

====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====

In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)

ST:
娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)

TT：
Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)

The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)

In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)

Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:

ST：
长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)

TT：
Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)

The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color.

Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)

====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====

In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.

ST：
（去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)

TT：
（Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)

The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)

Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)

Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)

===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===

''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang.

''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However, the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.

When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)

====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====

It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

ST：
“Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)

TT：
“再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)

Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk, to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.

====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====

As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)

To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:

ST:
It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)

TT:
男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15)

男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21)

活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16)

Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.

====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====

For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:

ST：
“But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)

TT：
“但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）

“可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）

“不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）

Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.

Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.

===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===

====5.1 Cultural Context====

Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)

The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which both affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.

For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is put into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)

For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)

====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====

As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.

And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)

Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to weaken the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)

===6. Conclusion===

Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective.

On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.

===References===

Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press.

Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].

Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University].

Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.

Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].

Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House].

Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House].

Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].

Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.

Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.

Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31.

Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge.

Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.

Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].

Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.

='''Art of Translation'''=

==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==
<center>Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587</center>

===Abstract===

Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti & Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.

===Key Words===

Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman

===题目===

翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究

===摘要===

翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。

翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼

===1. Research Background===

Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.

From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the "cultural turn". (Luo 2009: 61)

With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the "cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.

It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)

===2. Literature Review===

====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====

After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section.
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of "translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)

Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication" and "resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)

As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about "how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138).

In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath" in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics". In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)

====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====

With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". (Lu 2001: 272)

Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.

With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)

Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", "reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level".(Xu 1998: 49-54)

====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====

The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as "one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature" (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the "Nobel Literature Prize" in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing.

There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called "Panda Books" to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.

Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.

===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===

Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.

Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139)

The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator", and the translator should be "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer".(Chesterman 2001: 140)

The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding".(Chesterman 2001: 141)

Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of "descriptive translation studies". Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like "the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations". That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)

The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)

===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===

====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====

Ching & Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)

Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching & Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching & Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)

====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====

Table1 comparison of places names in two versions

源语/金白译/戴译

四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan

辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow

桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan

沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan

白河/ White Stream/ White River

湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan

秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu

茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong

酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You

洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting

The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the "cultural communication space", not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching & Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her "patron". For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the "patron". Ching & Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the "patron" of the Ching & Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)

Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions

源语/ 金白译/ 戴译

油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses

桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil

唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet

糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba

纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman

上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor

蓬船/ Junk/ Craft

青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt

法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade

粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli

喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig

陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns

From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the "patron". In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching & Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)

====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====

One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)

[Example 1]

[STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)

[TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)

[TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)

This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- "官路", "小山城"，"小溪", "白色", "小塔七", "单独的人家", "老人", "女孩子" and "黄狗", making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character "一". The character "一" embodies the "blue" aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)

In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character "一" in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven "a (an)" and one "the" to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates "单独" (的人家)into a "solitary" household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of "alone" and "lonely"，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)

Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of "单独"(的人家)into an "isolated" cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than "solitary" and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)

====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====

As Chesterman argues: "the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence". Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)

From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)

Let's look at the following examples:

[Example 1]

[STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么，你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”
翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)

[TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. "Such language from a child!" he teased, chuckling, "you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!"
"Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!" (Gladys, 1981:26)

[TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: "So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you."

"Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!" the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)

Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)

Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. Conclusion===

After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.

This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.

It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service & communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.

And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service & communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.

In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of "domestication" to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.

===References===

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Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

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Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .

Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti & R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.

Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.

Luo Xianfeng 骆贤凤. (2009).中西翻译伦理研究述评[A Review of the Research on Chinese and Western Translation Ethics].《中国翻译》''Chinese Translation'' 3，13-17。

Lv Jun 吕俊. (2001).《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》[''Cross cultural barriers--Reconstruction of Barbita''] Nanjing: Southeast University Press 南京：东南大学出版社

Sun Zhhili 孙致礼.(2007).译者的职责 [Responsibilities of the translator]《中国翻译》''Chinese Tranlation''，4, 14-18。

Shen Congwen 沈从.(1981).《边城》[''The Frontier City''] Nanchang: Jiangxi People Press 南昌：江西人民出版社

Xiang Rendong 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究 [Interpretation of Two English Version of BIancheng in Light of Translation ethics][J].语文学刊. Language and literature Learning(2019). 39(04):91-95.

Tong qingbin 童庆炳.(1998).《文学理论教程》[''Literary Theory Course''] Beijing: Higher Education Press 北京：高等教育出版社。

Wang Weiping 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of ''Biancheng''—from the Perspective of Translation Ethics] [D]. Nanjing Normal University 南京师范大学,2012.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==

==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 ( 专业)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==
<center>刘欧 Liu Ou</center>

==='''Abstract'''===
With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.

With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (promote)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (enhance)the world's understanding of China.

==='''Key words'''===
English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (semicolon should be added.)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''摘要'''===
随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。

==='''关键词'''===
英语翻译湖南旅游景点文化翻译观

==='''Introduction'''===
Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)

Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(语法有错误。) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)

The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)

This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.

=== The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===
Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.

After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text.

In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located.

==== The Purpose of Translation ====
As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

====Translation Methods and Strategies====
As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

====Content and Form of Translation ====
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (时态要统一。)(efficient can be deleted)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====
Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====
As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)

===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===
There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation.

====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====
When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English.

However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:

Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.
For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)

Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.
Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归雁亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.

Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (第一句话语法有错误。)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归雁亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.

Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.

===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===
Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(举例较少，没有分析。)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.

According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(前半部分语法有错误)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.

==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)

The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(主谓不一致。)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)

==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ====
In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.

In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(最后一句话语法错误。)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)

1. Literal Translation
Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.

2. Free Translation
Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).

3.Transliteration + Literal Translation
The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, "南岳庙" (Nanyue Temple), "洞庭湖" (Dongting Lake), "岳麓山"(Yuelu Mountain),"崀山" (Langshan Mountain), "湘江"(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.

4.Transliteration + Explanation
The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,"柳浪闻莺"liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), "鬼见愁"gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing "吊脚楼", if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)

Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is "Zhu Rong peak", Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.

=== Conclusion ===
Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective.

As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad.

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==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译==

==='''Abstract'''===

Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Viktor Shklovsky, 1990, 35-38)

==='''Key Words'''===

Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions

==='''摘要'''===

译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(什克洛夫斯基, 1990, 35-38)

==='''关键词'''===

陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本

===Introduction===

The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395)

Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. (Victor Shklovsky , 1990, 57)

The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)

Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录). (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)

Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)

====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====

Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic in itself and must be prolonged”. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity.(Victor Shklovsky, 1991, 78-79)

====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====

In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation, they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization.( Chen Lin, Zhang Chunbai, 2006:93)

Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.

Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, there are many ways towards this end. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)

=====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====

To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky, 1990).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)

=====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====

Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)

===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===

Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary.

====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====

Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem. (Deng Hongmei, 2000, 34)

Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style.(Deng Hongmei, 2000, 56)

====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====

A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.

The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s. Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000,79)

At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000, 90)

===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===

Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 34)

====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====

Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.(Schulte, R.and John Biguenet, 1992, 34)

Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman.

“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。

三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。

满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？

梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）

This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:

1. I seek but seek in vain,

I search but search again.

I feel so sad, so drear,

So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)

2. So dim, so dark.

So dense, so dull,

So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)

3. Seeking,seeking,

Chilly and quite,

Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）

4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,

So chill, so clear,

dreary,

and dismal,

and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)

5. Seeking

seeking

Searching

searching

over and over

lonely and forlorn

Sighing;

grieving

sighing

In the same round (Kwock&McHugh)

6. Seek…seek, search....search;

Lone...lone, cold...cold;

Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji)

Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.

Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original.

Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect.

Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.

No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.

Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:

1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles

As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)

2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,

In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)

3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be

A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)

4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.

The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)

5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)

6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)

No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.

====3.2 Translation of Verbs====

Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.
Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:

“薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，
有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”

This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:

1. What with curtains being folded—
by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)

2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)

3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)

4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)

5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)

In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.

Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise. No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.

“三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.

1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,
How can I endure at dusk the drift
Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）

2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.
To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)

3.How can a few cups of thin wine,
Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)

4.Three or two cups of light wine,
How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)

Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.

====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====

Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 79)

Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:

1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness
Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）

2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.
Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)

3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)

Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.

Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”

1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------
The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)

2.Oh, what can I do with a grief
Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)

3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”?
(Lin Yutang)

4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)

The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.

====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====

Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.

=====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====

This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.

1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman

The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:

1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.

But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie)

2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:

My old friends,

Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)

3. It breaks my heart, alas,

To see the wild geese pass,

For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)

4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;

But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&Gladys Yang)

5. Overhead,a heart-rending line

South-bound wild geese at morn

Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)

After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season.

Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.

Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness.

From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.

====4.2 Natural Images====

Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.

The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:

1. As compared with chrysanthemums,

I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)

2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)

3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)

4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)

Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)

====Conclusion====

Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)

The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. (Victor Shklovsky, 1979, 106)

And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)

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==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==

===Abstract===

Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.

===Key Words===
interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics

===摘要===
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。

===关键词===
口译，文化差异，应对策略

===Introduction===

The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）

No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)

===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===

Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）

According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, "For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used." Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)

====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====

Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)

Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)

For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)

====Cultural barriers caused from values====

Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）

A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.

====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====

Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval".“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word "龙" means something evil in the West, but "auspicious" in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase "望子成龙" should never be translated as “to hope one"'s child can become a dragon"，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）

====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====

Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give "New Year's Lucky money" to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but "Chinese New Year" does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays.

Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father" is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket". It means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket", but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as "与父亲睡觉", which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）

Look at the following example:
If this sentence is understood as
"约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏", it is because the translator failed to understand " eats no fish " and "play the game". After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So "" means "loyalty" and " to eat no fish " means "loyalty" and " to play the game "means "race",The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is "John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright".

====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====

The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）

In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.

Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.

===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===

Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation.

Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of "accuracy, smoothness and speed" and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as "on-site, present and limited time", the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the "nearest natural equivalence" between English and Chinese, and to try to find the "nearest natural equivalence" from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the "nearest natural equivalents" between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:

====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====

Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the "nearest natural equivalent" to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions "三个和尚没水吃" into " Everyone‘s business is no one"s business." is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)

However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌" by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）

Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）

====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====

The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a "purpose-oriented" approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

=====Direct translation method=====

Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, " Let sleeping dogs lie" is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.

=====Substitution Method=====
The substitution method is also called the "reciprocity method". It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom "冰冻三尺非一日之寒" is translated into " Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom "to spend money like water " translated into "挥金如土" is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)

====Intentional translation method=====

When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ".

This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）

=====Interpretation=====

Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)

1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture
诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.
Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事

2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere
三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure
and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.
An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。

3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism
解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”

4)Special cultural words

敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.
the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。

=====Simple translation and no translation=====

Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use "no translation" or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: "我姓张，弓长张。"Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)

===Conclusion===

Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements.

Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)

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--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==

===Abstract===

With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style.
The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.

===Key Words===

Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.

===中文摘要===

随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。
本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。

===关键词===

翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.

===Introduction===

Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies.

However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.

===Theoretical Framework===
====Background and development of Texts’ styles====

According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.

We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.

Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)

====Main functions of texts====

=====The Referential Function=====
The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.

=====The Expressive Function=====

The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.

=====The Appellative Function=====

The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.

====Main Text - types====

Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text.
Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively.

=====The Expressive Texts=====

Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc.

===== The Informative Texts=====

In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc.

===== The Vocative Texts=====

People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.

===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics===

With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel.

====Language Characteristics====

=====For literary style=====
======Vividness======
In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as "trump", "usher" and "is borne", the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.

======Emotional expression======
As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.

======Connotation======
Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized "State" can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.

===== For journalistic style=====
Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.

======Truthfulness======
First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)

======Newness======
If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.

======Objectivity======
The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.

======Political Relevance======
Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.

====Translation principles====
Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.

===== For literary style=====
Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.

======Equivalence-based principle======
Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.

======Accuracy-based principle======
No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.

=====For Journalistic style=====
Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.

======Purpose-based principle======
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.”

As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.

======Accuracy-based principle======
The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.

======Readability-based principle======
Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics.

===Translation strategies===
Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.

====Translation strategies in literary style====
In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation.

===== Domestication=====
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness,
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.

======paraphrasing======

Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.

Example1

ST: 如囊萤如映雪家虽贫学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)

TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied
unceasingly.

TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning.
Annotation: in order to read by their light.

TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly.

The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.

======Adaptation======

In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.

Example2

ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)

TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)

Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way.

Example3

ST: 凡训蒙须讲究详训诂明句读（Wang Yinglin,1986）

TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences.

TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation.

TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period.
There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.

======Replacement======

Example 4

ST:勤有功戏无益戒之哉宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)

TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength.

This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.

=====Foreignization=====

Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)

======phonetic compensation======

Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose.

Example5

ST:养不教父之过教不严师之惰

TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness.

Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text.

======Transliteration======

Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms.

Example6

ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46)

TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)

TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)

======Amplification======

Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers.

Example 7

ST:论语者二十篇群弟子记善言

TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings.

In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius.

==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====

===== Amplification=====

Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point.

Example 8

ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250)

TT:谁是真正的邦德?

There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text.

Example 9

ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225)

TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74

“比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning.

Example 10
ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15)

TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队

“评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader.

=====Omission=====

Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness.

Example11
ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005)
TT: 适当少睡有益健康
As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example.

Example12

ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07)

TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜

As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜.

=====Imitation=====
English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.

Example 13

ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).

TT:双心记

This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.

Example14

ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200)

TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢

This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.

=====Restructure=====
The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese.

Example 15

ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube

TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)

“A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics.

Example16

ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials

TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)

In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense.

Example 17

ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches

TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)

The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.

===== Adaptation=====
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more
attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc.

Example 18

ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind

TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)

“Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable.

Example 19

ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey

TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43)

“Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved.

Example 20

ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’

TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。

If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.

===Conclusion===
The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.

===References===

[1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.

[2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.

[3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.

[4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.

[5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.

[6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London & New York: Routledge,1995.

[7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.

[8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.

[9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.

[10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.

[11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.

[12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.

[13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm

[14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm

[15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm

[16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm

[17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==

<center>李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614</center>

===Abstract===

Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible.

Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===Key words===

Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology

===摘要===

意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。

===关键词===

批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====

The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, "Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion."

"Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view" (Kress & Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as "something neutral"which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that "these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse" (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).

However, according to Fairclough, "ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles " that are "implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware" (Fairclough , 1989: 2).

"Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of "ideology", which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

"Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)

"In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. "Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)

"Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)

====1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies====

=====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====

"In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the "Cultural Turn" of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)

"In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15)." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72

"Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization." (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)

"Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&Bassnett, 1998: 25-40)."(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)

=====1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression=====

Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.

==== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application====

"Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights." (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)

CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.

In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects:
First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-

The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries & Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.

The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)

This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions:
1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text?
2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident:
1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS?
2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?

===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===

==== 2.1 Classification====

"According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

Example (1): The same one Chinese character "发展" in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that "发展" can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.

For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.

When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet
b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions
c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment

For example, when used as a noun:
a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

In the three examples of the verb, "promote" means "to advance", while "support" means "to back up and give aid to". In these two examples, both "promote" and "support the growth" signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that "support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative "to provide assistance". In the second example, in "develop private R&D institutions", the word "develop" is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.

(2) "In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.

For example, "四风" in the source is translated as "formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance"."四风" is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.

However, the translation technique for "四风" is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.

The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.

(3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word "统一" in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as "reunification" in English. As we all know, the Chinese character "统一" means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix "re-" is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, "re-" means "again" and the word “unification” with a prefix "re-" means "back to the previous country". Thus, the Chinese character "统一" here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of "re-" implies a different ideological meaning.

For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an "independent country," a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so "reunification" is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.

(4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”
The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as "rural and non-working urban residents "
And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”
“农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”.

Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.

Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.

==== 2.2 Mode====

=====2.2.1 Modal verbs=====

"Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing "mood", modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as "can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to", imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer.

Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须".

Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.
B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together
C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,
D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.
E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.
F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.
G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.
H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth.
I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.

As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb "must" to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.
The use of "must" in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.

As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb "should". It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.
The translation of Example C uses the modal verb "will", which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.

Example E employs the modal verbs "should" and "may" in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.

Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.
Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.

Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in "I", the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject "we" and the modal verb "need to" are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.

The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.

However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.

=====2.2.2 Personal pronouns=====

"The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader."

"From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey." (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22)

（1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：
A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan
B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions.

（2）Added Personal Pronouns：
A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,
B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan.
C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.
D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage.
E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.

According to statistics, there are 308 "we" in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns "we" are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns "I", "all of us", etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases.

"Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'."(A Study of the Ideology of the <Government Work Report> under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself "authoritative". The "we" in the translation also naturally reflects "authority" correspondingly.

Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of "we" also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of "we" instead of "Chinese government" or "so-and-so department" is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, "we" is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.

==== 2.3 Conversion====

"Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose." (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on "transformation". Therefore, "transformation" can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of "transformation" between the source language and the translated one.

In the analysis of "transformation" in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear.

Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.

For example:

=====2.3.1 Nominalization=====

A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.
B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession,
C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.
D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government.

It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.
For example, in A), "upgrade" is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.

In B), "Affected by the global epidemic" was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.

C) The key word in the original text can be "risk accumulation", but because the adverbial term "finance and other fields" is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern "There be" is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as " The whole sentence of "increasing risks" is highlighted.

D) The full expression of the original text should be "In the government work, there are deficiencies." The implied meaning is "I should improve and upgrade the government work." The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as " "room for improvement" is also used in the sentence pattern "There be", and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.

It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.

=====2.3.2 Active to passive=====

A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.
B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.
C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.
D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.
E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.
F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.

In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of "active expression passive" sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.

===3.Conclusion===

From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,

(1) in terms of classification,
a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.
b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.
c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the "reunification of the motherland" on the Taiwan issue is translated as "reunification" because China wants to convey to the world the principle that "the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair."

(2) In terms of modal
a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.
b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun "we". It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.

(3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.

In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious.
First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology.
Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology;
but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.

===4.Limitations===

====4.1 Insufficient data support====

In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.

The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.

====4.2 Insufficient theoretical support====

The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.
Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.

===5.Bibliography===

[1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月

[2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月

[3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月

[4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的<政府工作报告>意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月

[5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期

[6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期

[7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期

[8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年

[9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期

[10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月

--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==

<center>聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628</center>

===Abstract===

English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.

===Key words===

English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”

===摘要===

英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。

===关键词===

英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”

===1. Introduction===

Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation.

===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===

“Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''. He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” (Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (ibid: 70)

This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peiji’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.

===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===

A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326).

The inflected forms in modern English mainly include conjugation, declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:

Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。
Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).

The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the original sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration.

Due to the difference in inflection between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible to the target reader.

There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.

Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to objective description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”.

Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业”（"homework" in English） who performs the action “写”("writing" in English). That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.

English language, where the subject is given priority to, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority to in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.

Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)
If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)

There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.

Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)
If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)

There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.

Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences.

Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)
Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)

It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候”（"it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to..."） is “I” ("我" in Chinese), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.

Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)
This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)
much sadness to other people
In this example, “这种死亡”（"This kind of death" in English） serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦”（"causes... much pain to the writer himself" in English) as well as “别人看了心里也很难受”（"much sadness to other people" in English） serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” ("这种死亡" in Chinese) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.

Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113).

Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.

English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .

As a result, English sentences are closely related to each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure.

Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)
It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)

The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” ("借来的书" in Chinese) and “books bought” ("自己买的" in Chinese). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.

Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)
It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English transaltion compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.

Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)
Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)

There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the source text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.

Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)
Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)

The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” ("a writer" in English) and “适当的社会活动和文学活动” ("gets properly involved with social and literary activities" in English). Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” ("a writer" in English) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.

Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.

Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context.

Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words.

There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.

Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)
Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)

“范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:
... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...
It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.

Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.

English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.

In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.

Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)
Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.

Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)
Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)

Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.

Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)
The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)

The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.

Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)

Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223).

Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)
Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)

The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” ("书" in Chinese) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.

Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)
As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)

The repeated verb “read” ("看" in Chinese) has been omitted in the translation.

In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.

English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.

Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation.

Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)
Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it.

Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)
At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)

Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.

Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)
Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)

The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.

Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)
The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)

Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.

Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.

===4.Conclusion===

This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved.

===References===

Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company.

Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.

Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.

Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.

Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.

Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

History of Translation Studies 9

2020-12-21T14:23:26Z

Yi Zichu: /* English Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''Comparative Studies'''=

==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking Between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==

<center>Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663</center>
===Abstract===
The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.

===Key words===
language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture

===摘要===
英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。

===关键词===
语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化

===1. Introduction===
The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)

Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of cultural identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his cultural identity. While each culture also has its own peculiarities and can throw influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.

Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking is the brain’s generalized and indirect reflecting process of the general characteristics and laws of objective things.” (Liu Kuilin, 1989:9) It is a dynamic process of reflecting the objective facts and worlds. Hence it is largely influenced by the outside cultures. In general, different culture leads to different thinking patterns which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related like three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.

===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===

The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings.

===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===
When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking.

Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people to develop holistic thinking.

While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates the “subject-object dichotomy” and then explains the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logical conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.

Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationships between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.

In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. (1994: 84)

Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:

(1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)
我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)

(2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）
Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)

From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue.

Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some Chinese works, writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.

===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===

It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stresses the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the severe natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, the Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)

Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human beings are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being.

The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature.

Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked that authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 )

While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority use of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance:

The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能)
一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。

A good idea suddenly occur on me.
我突然想出了一个好主意。

The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers.

Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used to show their objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way.

It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” patterns are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance:

(1) 公交车来了。
There comes the bus.
(2) 我家有五口人。
There are 5 people in my family.

Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often uses the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.

===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===
Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain.

Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.

Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”.

Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tends to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.”

While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be demonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully exemplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.

葡萄美酒夜光杯，
欲饮琵琶马上催。— 王翰《凉州词》
With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,
Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.

无边落木萧萧下，
不尽长江滚滚来。—杜甫《登高》
The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,
The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.

In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography:
“To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”

“为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则
是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。”
There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.

Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.
智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）

In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.

===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===

According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2).
Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis.

And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.

While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself views the deductive method superior to the inductive one.

Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction have been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples:

(1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.
足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。

There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.

(2) 各位来宾，
女士们，先生们，朋友们：
Distinguished Guests,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Dear Friends,
在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！
With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.

Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.
诸位下午好。我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。

Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking.

Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.

===3. Conclusion===
The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison of four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.

While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two languages. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.

=== Reference===
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*Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.
*Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974.
*Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997.
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*Bao Huinan. 包惠南. (2001)【M】文化语境与语言翻译 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation. 中国对外翻译出版公司.
* Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching. 外语与外语教学.
*Liu Kuilin. 刘奎林. (1989) 《思维、思维科学导论》【M】 Introduction to Thinking and Thinking Science. Beijing: Workers publishing House 工人出版社.
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 江西教育出版社.
*Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD. 台北东大图书公司.
*Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. (1994) 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.
*Wang Dehua. 汪德华. (2003) 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学, Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.
*Zhang Li. 张黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. Changchun: Jilin Education Press. 吉林教育出版社.
*Zhang Sijie & Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.
--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 08:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==

===Abstract===

In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.

With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.

Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.

===Key words===

Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''

===摘要===

20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。

随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。

奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。

===关键词===

功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》

===Introduction===

Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His "Functional equivalence" theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory (Tan Kai 2011, 43).

Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====

Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field (Zhang Yimei 2020,180).

In 1964, Nida put forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of "dynamic equivalence" until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression "dynamic equivalence" was superseded by "functional equivalence" in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined "in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language (Nida 1969, 24). "

Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.

In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level (Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida 1993, 118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida 1995, 224).

====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====

Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898) （Zhang Xi 2014, 1):

"Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so (Yan Fu 2009, 202)."

Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2).

According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. "Faithfulness" emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. "Expressiveness" stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. "Elegance" reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Yan Fu 2009, 202):

"Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance. (Yan Fu 2009, 202)"

Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard "elegance". According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. "Elegance" now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard "elegance", the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

===Theoretial Foundation===

====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====

=====Modern Linguistic=====

Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics (Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately (Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64).

According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure (Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).

=====Information Theory=====

Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information (Nida 1964, 68).

Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation (Nida 1984, 34).

=====Social Semiotics=====

Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning (Zhu Haotong 2006, 65).

In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods (Nida 1993, 67).

====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====

=====Chinese Aesthetics=====

Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty (Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.

"Faithfulness" means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. "Expressiveness" means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. "Elegance" refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. "Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" reveal the essence of translation (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters (Guo Dingju 2013, 18).

Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance (Guo Dingju 2013, 19).

=====Literary Criticism=====

Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods (Guo Dingju 2013, 19).

On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works (Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation (Li Jianzhong 2009, 46).

There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels (Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).

===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===

====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====

=====About ''Vanity Fair''=====

''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition (Guo Dingju 2013, 21).

At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again (Thackeray 2006，178).

This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time (Guo Dingju 2013, 21).

The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness (Thackeray 2006, 89).

=====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====

There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).

Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).

====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====

Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.

=====At Lexical Level=====

In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943, 89), those are

(1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on;

(2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on;

(3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on;

(4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on;

(5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on;

(6) links, such as when, during, below and so on;

(7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on (Nida 1986, 20).

From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16).

Exampe 1:

ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)

TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗? (杨必 2013, 47)

In ST1, "Love" and "Beauty" are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words "Love" and "Beauty" to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates "Love" and "Beauty" into "痴情男子" and "美貌佳人" to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate "Love" and "Beauty" into "爱情" and "美人", the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.

=====At Syntactical Level=====

A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences. Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence (Nida 1946, 55). He thinks there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:

(1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;

(2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;

(3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;

(4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;

(5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;

(6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;

(7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.

The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences (Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text (Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation.

Example 2:

ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.
(Thackeray 2016, 75)

TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。
(Yang Bi 2013, 76)

In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences (Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.

(1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。

His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.

(2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。

He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.

(3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。

She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade.

(4) 她死后，他许下承诺。

He was hanged after her death.

(5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。

He would never take another of her sort.

(6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。

At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.

(7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。

He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.

In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.

====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====

The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.

=====At Lexical level=====

Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence (Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.

Example 3:

ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty? (Thackeray 2006, 138)

TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？ (杨必 2013, 47)

In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words "an image of Love" and "Beauty" to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).

If the words "prettier", "an image of Love" and "Beauty" are translated into "更好看" "爱情形象" "美人" respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, "痴情男子" "美貌佳人" and "赏心悦目" reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).

=====At Sentence Level=====

English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis (Guo Dingju 2013, 40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.

Example 4:

ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)

TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)

In the original sentence, the abstract words "behavior" and "reception" are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into "克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……" without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.

====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====

===== Similarities =====

Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.

One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent (Nida & Taber 1969, 22).

Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty (Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.

The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information (Nida 1969, 30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.

Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely (Guo Dingju 2013, 44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.

By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.

===== Differences =====

Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of "elegance". What’s more, the concrete explanation of "faithfulness" is not clear. Whether the target text should only be "faithful" to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence (Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard.

===Conclusion===

With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class (Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation.

From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures.

====Implements====

Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181).

What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper (Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.

====Limitations====

Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions.

===References===

Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.

Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.

Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986). ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press.

Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等 [On Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects (236) 94-97.

Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.

Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史 [History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.

Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''青年作家'' Young Writers (1) 43-44.

Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编 [A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言 [Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》 [''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.

Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译 [A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.

Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南 [A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.

Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等 [A Comparison on "Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance" and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House (2) 180-181.

Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考 [Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University (3) 62-65.

--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==

===Abstract===
In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' .

===Key words=== eco-translatology; ''2019 Government Work Report''; multi-dimension transformation

===摘要===
近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。

===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论

===Introduction===
The ''Government Work Report'' of the State Council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the Prime Minister of State Court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003)

As the latest work report of the year, the ''2019 Government Work Report'' is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）

In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of ''Government Work Report'', which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the ''Government Work Report''. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of ''Government Work Report'' at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）

===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===

''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)

====1.1 Lexical Level ====
For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====
As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)

=====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)

====1.2 Syntactic Level====
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand.

====1.3 Rhetorical Level ====
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)

In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations)
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure)
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability)

Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.

Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)

Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of ''Government Work Report'' vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)

===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===

Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）

====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed

====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====
=====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

=====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====
Language dimension refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）

===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.

====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)

====3.2 Cultural Dimension====
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The ''Government Work Report'' is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 Communicative Dimension====
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.

Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.

Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood.

In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

===Conclusion===

During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.

Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)

First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese ''Government Work Report'' from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the ''Government Work Report'' translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017)

However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)

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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center>
===Abstract===
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way.

Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.

===Key words===
Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories

===题目===
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》

===摘要===
奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。

另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。

===关键词===

奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论

===1.Introduction===

====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).

By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).

His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).

====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20).

In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20).

If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).

===2.Similarities and Differences===

====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).

=====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====
Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).

Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40).

Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20).

Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).

=====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).

He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40).

The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93).

Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).

====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).

Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20).

By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22).

=====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)

Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)

Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).

In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49).

=====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).

In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43).

In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).

Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).

=====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38).

In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38).

By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2).

Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).

===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===

====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====

=====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132).

Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159).

=====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38).

What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42).

====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====

=====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).

====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166).

Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).

===4.Conclusion===
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).

===References===

Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.

Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.

Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.

Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.

Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.

Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science & Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.

--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605 英语笔译==
<center>石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 20207080605</center>

===Abstract===
The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.

===Key words===
Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis

===摘要===
一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。

===关键词===
谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析

===Introduction===

====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====

In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, but also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)

Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, study the human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)

In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable that knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:22)

From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:

[[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]

====Yi Jing’s Translation System====
According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:197).

The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:198-200).

The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself(Yi Jing, 2009:200-215).

The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.(Yi Jing, 2009:215-268).

The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, and covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.(Yi Jing, 2009:215-268).--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. (Yi Jing, 2009:268-281).

The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:281-287).

From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:
[[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]

The translations of the above terms are as following:

[[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]

===Similarities and Differences===

====The Similarities between the Two systems====

=====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====

In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.

From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.

It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.

=====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====

In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.

For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).

Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.

=====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====
The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that "all translations must be faithful to the original text". Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as "faithful to the original content ", " faithful to the original form ", " faithful to the original effect ", " faithful to the original function" and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that "comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style" is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).

As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.
Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.

====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====

=====Different structures of translation system=====

From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.

Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.

=====Different views on the study of translation history=====

Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).

we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.

we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account. In addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

=====Different views on translation process=====

For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).

From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive.

===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===

====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====

=====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====

First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.

First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is， translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that "translatology is an independent discipline" is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.

Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of "harmony in diversity", which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.

=====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====

As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.

Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.

Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.

=====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====

The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.

The great influence and contributions of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field are obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====

=====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====
First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.
In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.

=====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====

However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.

Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.

Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.

=====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====

Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies.

===Conclusion===

This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.

===Refrences===

[1]Chen Fukan陈福康.(2000)中国译学理论史稿[A History of Translation Theory in China]].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.

[2]Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2016)当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起[The Pattern of Translation Studies in the World -- On the Rise of Chinese Translation Studies in the 21st Century] 外语教学理论与实践. Foreign Language Learning Theory and Pactice（3):55-63.

[3]Lan Hongjun蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究[From Subject Consciousness to Theoretical Construction: A Study of Chinese Translation Theory (1987-2017).]中国翻译.Chinese Translation(39):7-16.

[4]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1987)必须建立翻译学[Translatology muct be Established].中国翻译.Chinese Translation.(b3): 2-7.

[5]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2005)翻译学[A Series of Translation Studies in China].Wu Han:Hu Bei Education Press 武汉:湖北教育出版社,.

[6]Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009)翻译学概论[An Introduction to Translation Studies].Nan Jing:Yi Lin Press 南京:译林出版社.

[7]Yi Jing易经.(2009)试论翻译学体系的构建[On the Construction of the System of Translatology].Hu Nan Normal University 湖南师范大学.

==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==

胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060

==='''Abstract'''===
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.

==='''Key Words'''===
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence

===摘要===
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。

===关键词===
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值

===1.Introduction===
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.

In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc.

His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.

Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.

There are some similarities between Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Barnett's "cultural equivalence", but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the "similarities and differences" and "differences" between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.

===2.The background of the two translation theories===

Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics.

But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.

Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.

===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield.

Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.

Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of "Bible" translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).

===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.

According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.

===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===

===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".

3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"

"Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. "Mathematical equivalence" is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.

" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages.

The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.

3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.

3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.

As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.

To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that "reactions can never be the same," but that "a high degree of reaction equivalence" is required and possible; As for "functional equivalence", Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.

Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message.

He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).

3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.

（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)

“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)

If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.

(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)

“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)

The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).

(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)

“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)

"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.

===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===

According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.

3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.

Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.

3.2.2 Content and form of translation
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.

But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it.
Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.

3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation
Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the "intelligibility" of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.

3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.

3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples

原文:

“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)

辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"

韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )

"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.

原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)

辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )

韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )

Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.

===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===

Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)

But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.

===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.

Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.

Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).

===6. Conclusion===
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.

===References===

[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.

[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]

[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]

[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]

[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]

[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]

[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]

[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]

[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]

[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.

[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]

[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]

[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]

--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI 英语笔译==
<center> 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610</center>

===Abstract===

Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.

===Key words===

Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu

===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===
===摘要===

目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。

===关键词===

目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复

===1. Introduction===

Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248)

In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.

===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===

====2.1 Skopos Theory====

“Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.

=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====

The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.

(1) Katharina Reiss’s research

The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)

(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond

Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）

(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle

Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====

There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.

The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997)

Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition.

The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251)

These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.

====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====

Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）

Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）

=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====

(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”

The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago.

The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.

(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”

Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.

The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.

Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)

Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)

=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====

Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)

There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)

And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）

In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.

===3. Similiarities and Differences===

====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====

Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.

=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====

The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.

Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)

In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness", which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.

=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====

The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory.

In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32)

Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text.

At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.

=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====

The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent.

The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". Translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12)

While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.

====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====

Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

=====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====

Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed.

Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）

Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.

=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====

Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)

In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)

=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====

For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)

So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)

However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative.

As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .

===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===

Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.

====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====

When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242)

In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a "source of information", which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation.

More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.

Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu.

In particular, there are various new interpretations of "Elegance" in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)

====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====

Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996)

Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.

Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.

In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.

===5. Conclusion===

There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.

Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.

Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.

===Reference===

Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.

Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.

Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.

Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.

Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.

Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.

Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.

Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.

Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.

He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.

Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.

Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.

Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.

--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==

<center>纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian </center>

===Abstract===

As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.

===Key words===

Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation

===题目===
性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究

===摘要===

张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。

===关键词===

张爱玲，性别，自译，他译

===1. Introduction===

Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)

In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them.

She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)

Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue & Mu Lei 2010: 67)

===2. Gender and Translation===

Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)

During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)

As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.

This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)

===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===

As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121).

In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).

Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)

Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.

====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====

In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)

ST：
（七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)

TT：
( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)

Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)

However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)

====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====

In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)

ST:
娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)

TT：
Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)

The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)

In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)

Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:

ST：
长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)

TT：
Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)

The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color.

Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)

====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====

In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.

ST：
（去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)

TT：
（Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)

The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)

Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)

Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)

===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===

''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang.

''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However, the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.

When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)

====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====

It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

ST：
“Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)

TT：
“再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)

Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk, to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.

====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====

As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)

To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:

ST:
It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)

TT:
男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15)

男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21)

活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16)

Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.

====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====

For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:

ST：
“But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)

TT：
“但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）

“可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）

“不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）

Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.

Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.

===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===

====5.1 Cultural Context====

Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)

The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which both affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.

For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is put into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)

For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)

====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====

As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.

And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)

Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to weaken the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)

===6. Conclusion===

Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective.

On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.

===References===

Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press.

Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].

Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University].

Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.

Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].

Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House].

Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House].

Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].

Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.

Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.

Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31.

Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge.

Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.

Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].

Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.

='''Art of Translation'''=

==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==
<center>Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587</center>

===Abstract===

Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti & Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.

===Key Words===

Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman

===题目===

翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究

===摘要===

翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。

翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼

===1. Research Background===

Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.

From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the "cultural turn". (Luo 2009: 61)

With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the "cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.

It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)

===2. Literature Review===

====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====

After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section.
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of "translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)

Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication" and "resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)

As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about "how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138).

In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath" in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics". In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)

====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====

With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". (Lu 2001: 272)

Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.

With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)

Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", "reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level".(Xu 1998: 49-54)

====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====

The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as "one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature" (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the "Nobel Literature Prize" in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing.

There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called "Panda Books" to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.

Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.

===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===

Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.

Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139)

The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator", and the translator should be "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer".(Chesterman 2001: 140)

The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding".(Chesterman 2001: 141)

Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of "descriptive translation studies". Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like "the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations". That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)

The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)

===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===

====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====

Ching & Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)

Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching & Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching & Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)

====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====

Table1 comparison of places names in two versions

源语/金白译/戴译

四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan

辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow

桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan

沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan

白河/ White Stream/ White River

湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan

秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu

茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong

酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You

洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting

The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the "cultural communication space", not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching & Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her "patron". For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the "patron". Ching & Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the "patron" of the Ching & Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)

Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions

源语/ 金白译/ 戴译

油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses

桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil

唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet

糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba

纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman

上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor

蓬船/ Junk/ Craft

青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt

法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade

粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli

喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig

陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns

From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the "patron". In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching & Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)

====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====

One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)

[Example 1]

[STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)

[TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)

[TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)

This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- "官路", "小山城"，"小溪", "白色", "小塔七", "单独的人家", "老人", "女孩子" and "黄狗", making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character "一". The character "一" embodies the "blue" aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)

In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character "一" in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven "a (an)" and one "the" to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates "单独" (的人家)into a "solitary" household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of "alone" and "lonely"，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)

Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of "单独"(的人家)into an "isolated" cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than "solitary" and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)

====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====

As Chesterman argues: "the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence". Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)

From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)

Let's look at the following examples:

[Example 1]

[STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么，你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”
翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)

[TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. "Such language from a child!" he teased, chuckling, "you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!"
"Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!" (Gladys, 1981:26)

[TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: "So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you."

"Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!" the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)

Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)

Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. Conclusion===

After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.

This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.

It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service & communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.

And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service & communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.

In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of "domestication" to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.

===References===

Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .

Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .

Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti & R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.

Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.

Luo Xianfeng 骆贤凤. (2009).中西翻译伦理研究述评[A Review of the Research on Chinese and Western Translation Ethics].《中国翻译》''Chinese Translation'' 3，13-17。

Lv Jun 吕俊. (2001).《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》[''Cross cultural barriers--Reconstruction of Barbita''] Nanjing: Southeast University Press 南京：东南大学出版社

Sun Zhhili 孙致礼.(2007).译者的职责 [Responsibilities of the translator]《中国翻译》''Chinese Tranlation''，4, 14-18。

Shen Congwen 沈从.(1981).《边城》[''The Frontier City''] Nanchang: Jiangxi People Press 南昌：江西人民出版社

Xiang Rendong 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究 [Interpretation of Two English Version of BIancheng in Light of Translation ethics][J].语文学刊. Language and literature Learning(2019). 39(04):91-95.

Tong qingbin 童庆炳.(1998).《文学理论教程》[''Literary Theory Course''] Beijing: Higher Education Press 北京：高等教育出版社。

Wang Weiping 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of ''Biancheng''—from the Perspective of Translation Ethics] [D]. Nanjing Normal University 南京师范大学,2012.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==

==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 ( 专业)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==
<center>刘欧 Liu Ou</center>

==='''Abstract'''===
With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.

With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (promote)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (enhance)the world's understanding of China.

==='''Key words'''===
English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (semicolon should be added.)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''摘要'''===
随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。

==='''关键词'''===
英语翻译湖南旅游景点文化翻译观

==='''Introduction'''===
Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)

Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(语法有错误。) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)

The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)

This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.

=== The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===
Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.

After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text.

In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located.

==== The Purpose of Translation ====
As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

====Translation Methods and Strategies====
As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

====Content and Form of Translation ====
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (时态要统一。)(efficient can be deleted)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====
Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====
As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)

===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===
There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation.

====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====
When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English.

However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:

Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.
For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)

Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.
Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归雁亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.

Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (第一句话语法有错误。)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归雁亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.

Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.

===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===
Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(举例较少，没有分析。)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.

According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(前半部分语法有错误)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.

==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)

The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(主谓不一致。)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)

==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ====
In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.

In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(最后一句话语法错误。)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)

1. Literal Translation
Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.

2. Free Translation
Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).

3.Transliteration + Literal Translation
The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, "南岳庙" (Nanyue Temple), "洞庭湖" (Dongting Lake), "岳麓山"(Yuelu Mountain),"崀山" (Langshan Mountain), "湘江"(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.

4.Transliteration + Explanation
The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,"柳浪闻莺"liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), "鬼见愁"gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing "吊脚楼", if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)

Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is "Zhu Rong peak", Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.

=== Conclusion ===
Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective.

As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad.

=== Bibliography ===

*Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.

* Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．

*黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报

*肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.

*潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流

*陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）

*辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报

*陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］．北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．

*王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报

*林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．

*熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报

*贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．

*湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html

(参考文献格式错误。)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.

==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译==

==='''Abstract'''===

Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Viktor Shklovsky, 1990, 35-38)

==='''Key Words'''===

Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions

==='''摘要'''===

译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(什克洛夫斯基, 1990, 35-38)

==='''关键词'''===

陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本

===Introduction===

The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395)

Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. (Victor Shklovsky , 1990, 57)

The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)

Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录). (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)

Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)

====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====

Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic in itself and must be prolonged”. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity.(Victor Shklovsky, 1991, 78-79)

====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====

In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation, they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization.( Chen Lin, Zhang Chunbai, 2006:93)

Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.

Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, there are many ways towards this end. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)

=====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====

To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky, 1990).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)

=====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====

Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)

===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===

Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary.

====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====

Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem. (Deng Hongmei, 2000, 34)

Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style.(Deng Hongmei, 2000, 56)

====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====

A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.

The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s. Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000,79)

At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000, 90)

===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===

Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 34)

====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====

Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.(Schulte, R.and John Biguenet, 1992, 34)

Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman.

“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。

三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。

满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？

梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）

This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:

1. I seek but seek in vain,

I search but search again.

I feel so sad, so drear,

So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)

2. So dim, so dark.

So dense, so dull,

So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)

3. Seeking,seeking,

Chilly and quite,

Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）

4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,

So chill, so clear,

dreary,

and dismal,

and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)

5. Seeking

seeking

Searching

searching

over and over

lonely and forlorn

Sighing;

grieving

sighing

In the same round (Kwock&McHugh)

6. Seek…seek, search....search;

Lone...lone, cold...cold;

Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji)

Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.

Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original.

Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect.

Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.

No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.

Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:

1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles

As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)

2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,

In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)

3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be

A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)

4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.

The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)

5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)

6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)

No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.

====3.2 Translation of Verbs====

Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.
Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:

“薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，
有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”

This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:

1. What with curtains being folded—
by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)

2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)

3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)

4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)

5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)

In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.

Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise. No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.

“三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.

1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,
How can I endure at dusk the drift
Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）

2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.
To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)

3.How can a few cups of thin wine,
Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)

4.Three or two cups of light wine,
How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)

Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.

====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====

Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 79)

Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:

1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness
Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）

2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.
Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)

3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)

Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.

Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”

1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------
The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)

2.Oh, what can I do with a grief
Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)

3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”?
(Lin Yutang)

4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)

The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.

====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====

Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.

=====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====

This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.

1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman

The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:

1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.

But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie)

2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:

My old friends,

Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)

3. It breaks my heart, alas,

To see the wild geese pass,

For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)

4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;

But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&Gladys Yang)

5. Overhead,a heart-rending line

South-bound wild geese at morn

Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)

After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season.

Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.

Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness.

From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.

====4.2 Natural Images====

Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.

The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:

1. As compared with chrysanthemums,

I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)

2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)

3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)

4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)

Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)

====Conclusion====

Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)

The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. (Victor Shklovsky, 1979, 106)

And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)

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==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==

===Abstract===

Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.

===Key Words===
interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics

===摘要===
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。

===关键词===
口译，文化差异，应对策略

===Introduction===

The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）

No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)

===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===

Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）

According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, "For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used." Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)

====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====

Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)

Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)

For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)

====Cultural barriers caused from values====

Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）

A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.

====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====

Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval".“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word "龙" means something evil in the West, but "auspicious" in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase "望子成龙" should never be translated as “to hope one"'s child can become a dragon"，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）

====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====

Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give "New Year's Lucky money" to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but "Chinese New Year" does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays.

Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father" is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket". It means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket", but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as "与父亲睡觉", which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）

Look at the following example:
If this sentence is understood as
"约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏", it is because the translator failed to understand " eats no fish " and "play the game". After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So "" means "loyalty" and " to eat no fish " means "loyalty" and " to play the game "means "race",The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is "John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright".

====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====

The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）

In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.

Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.

===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===

Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation.

Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of "accuracy, smoothness and speed" and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as "on-site, present and limited time", the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the "nearest natural equivalence" between English and Chinese, and to try to find the "nearest natural equivalence" from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the "nearest natural equivalents" between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:

====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====

Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the "nearest natural equivalent" to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions "三个和尚没水吃" into " Everyone‘s business is no one"s business." is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)

However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌" by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）

Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）

====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====

The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a "purpose-oriented" approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

=====Direct translation method=====

Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, " Let sleeping dogs lie" is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.

=====Substitution Method=====
The substitution method is also called the "reciprocity method". It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom "冰冻三尺非一日之寒" is translated into " Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom "to spend money like water " translated into "挥金如土" is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)

====Intentional translation method=====

When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ".

This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）

=====Interpretation=====

Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)

1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture
诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.
Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事

2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere
三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure
and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.
An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。

3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism
解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”

4)Special cultural words

敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.
the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。

=====Simple translation and no translation=====

Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use "no translation" or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: "我姓张，弓长张。"Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)

===Conclusion===

Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements.

Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)

===Reference===

简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期

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刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期

熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8

杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期

张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期

Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.

Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.

Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.

Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.

Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.

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--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==

===Abstract===

With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style.
The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.

===Key Words===

Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.

===中文摘要===

随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。
本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。

===关键词===

翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.

===Introduction===

Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies.

However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.

===Theoretical Framework===
====Background and development of Texts’ styles====

According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.

We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.

Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)

====Main functions of texts====

=====The Referential Function=====
The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.

=====The Expressive Function=====

The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.

=====The Appellative Function=====

The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.

====Main Text - types====

Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text.
Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively.

=====The Expressive Texts=====

Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc.

===== The Informative Texts=====

In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc.

===== The Vocative Texts=====

People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.

===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics===

With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel.

====Language Characteristics====

=====For literary style=====
======Vividness======
In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as "trump", "usher" and "is borne", the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.

======Emotional expression======
As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.

======Connotation======
Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized "State" can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.

===== For journalistic style=====
Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.

======Truthfulness======
First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)

======Newness======
If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.

======Objectivity======
The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.

======Political Relevance======
Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.

====Translation principles====
Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.

===== For literary style=====
Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.

======Equivalence-based principle======
Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.

======Accuracy-based principle======
No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.

=====For Journalistic style=====
Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.

======Purpose-based principle======
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.”

As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.

======Accuracy-based principle======
The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.

======Readability-based principle======
Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics.

===Translation strategies===
Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.

====Translation strategies in literary style====
In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation.

===== Domestication=====
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness,
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.

======paraphrasing======

Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.

Example1

ST: 如囊萤如映雪家虽贫学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)

TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied
unceasingly.

TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning.
Annotation: in order to read by their light.

TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly.

The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.

======Adaptation======

In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.

Example2

ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)

TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)

Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way.

Example3

ST: 凡训蒙须讲究详训诂明句读（Wang Yinglin,1986）

TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences.

TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation.

TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period.
There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.

======Replacement======

Example 4

ST:勤有功戏无益戒之哉宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)

TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength.

This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.

=====Foreignization=====

Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)

======phonetic compensation======

Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose.

Example5

ST:养不教父之过教不严师之惰

TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness.

Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text.

======Transliteration======

Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms.

Example6

ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46)

TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)

TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)

======Amplification======

Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers.

Example 7

ST:论语者二十篇群弟子记善言

TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings.

In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius.

==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====

===== Amplification=====

Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point.

Example 8

ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250)

TT:谁是真正的邦德?

There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text.

Example 9

ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225)

TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74

“比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning.

Example 10
ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15)

TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队

“评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader.

=====Omission=====

Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness.

Example11
ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005)
TT: 适当少睡有益健康
As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example.

Example12

ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07)

TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜

As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜.

=====Imitation=====
English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.

Example 13

ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).

TT:双心记

This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.

Example14

ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200)

TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢

This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.

=====Restructure=====
The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese.

Example 15

ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube

TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)

“A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics.

Example16

ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials

TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)

In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense.

Example 17

ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches

TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)

The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.

===== Adaptation=====
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more
attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc.

Example 18

ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind

TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)

“Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable.

Example 19

ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey

TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43)

“Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved.

Example 20

ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’

TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。

If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.

===Conclusion===
The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.

===References===

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[13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm

[14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm

[15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm

[16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm

[17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==

<center>李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614</center>

===Abstract===

Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible.

Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===Key words===

Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology

===摘要===

意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。

===关键词===

批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态

===1. Introduction===

====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====

The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, "Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion."

"Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view" (Kress & Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as "something neutral"which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that "these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse" (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).

However, according to Fairclough, "ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles " that are "implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware" (Fairclough , 1989: 2).

"Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of "ideology", which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

"Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)

"In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. "Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)

"Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)

====1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies====

=====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====

"In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the "Cultural Turn" of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)

"In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15)." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72

"Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization." (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)

"Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&Bassnett, 1998: 25-40)."(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)

=====1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression=====

Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.

==== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application====

"Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights." (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)

CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.

In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects:
First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-

The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries & Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.

The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)

This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions:
1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text?
2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident:
1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS?
2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?

===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===

==== 2.1 Classification====

"According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

Example (1): The same one Chinese character "发展" in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that "发展" can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.

For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.

When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet
b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions
c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment

For example, when used as a noun:
a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

In the three examples of the verb, "promote" means "to advance", while "support" means "to back up and give aid to". In these two examples, both "promote" and "support the growth" signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that "support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative "to provide assistance". In the second example, in "develop private R&D institutions", the word "develop" is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.

(2) "In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.

For example, "四风" in the source is translated as "formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance"."四风" is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.

However, the translation technique for "四风" is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.

The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.

(3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word "统一" in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as "reunification" in English. As we all know, the Chinese character "统一" means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix "re-" is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, "re-" means "again" and the word “unification” with a prefix "re-" means "back to the previous country". Thus, the Chinese character "统一" here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of "re-" implies a different ideological meaning.

For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an "independent country," a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so "reunification" is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.

(4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”
The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as "rural and non-working urban residents "
And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”
“农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”.

Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.

Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.

==== 2.2 Mode====

=====2.2.1 Modal verbs=====

"Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing "mood", modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as "can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to", imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer.

Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须".

Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.
B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together
C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,
D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.
E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.
F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.
G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.
H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth.
I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.

As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb "must" to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.
The use of "must" in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.

As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb "should". It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.
The translation of Example C uses the modal verb "will", which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.

Example E employs the modal verbs "should" and "may" in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.

Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.
Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.

Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in "I", the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject "we" and the modal verb "need to" are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.

The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.

However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.

=====2.2.2 Personal pronouns=====

"The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader."

"From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey." (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22)

（1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：
A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan
B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions.

（2）Added Personal Pronouns：
A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,
B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan.
C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.
D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage.
E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.

According to statistics, there are 308 "we" in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns "we" are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns "I", "all of us", etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases.

"Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'."(A Study of the Ideology of the <Government Work Report> under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself "authoritative". The "we" in the translation also naturally reflects "authority" correspondingly.

Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of "we" also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of "we" instead of "Chinese government" or "so-and-so department" is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, "we" is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.

==== 2.3 Conversion====

"Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose." (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on "transformation". Therefore, "transformation" can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of "transformation" between the source language and the translated one.

In the analysis of "transformation" in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear.

Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.

For example:

=====2.3.1 Nominalization=====

A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.
B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession,
C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.
D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government.

It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.
For example, in A), "upgrade" is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.

In B), "Affected by the global epidemic" was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.

C) The key word in the original text can be "risk accumulation", but because the adverbial term "finance and other fields" is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern "There be" is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as " The whole sentence of "increasing risks" is highlighted.

D) The full expression of the original text should be "In the government work, there are deficiencies." The implied meaning is "I should improve and upgrade the government work." The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as " "room for improvement" is also used in the sentence pattern "There be", and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.

It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.

=====2.3.2 Active to passive=====

A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.
B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.
C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.
D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.
E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.
F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.

In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of "active expression passive" sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.

===3.Conclusion===

From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,

(1) in terms of classification,
a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.
b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.
c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the "reunification of the motherland" on the Taiwan issue is translated as "reunification" because China wants to convey to the world the principle that "the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair."

(2) In terms of modal
a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.
b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun "we". It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.

(3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.

In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious.
First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology.
Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology;
but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.

===4.Limitations===

====4.1 Insufficient data support====

In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.

The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.

====4.2 Insufficient theoretical support====

The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.
Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.

===5.Bibliography===

[1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月

[2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月

[3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月

[4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的<政府工作报告>意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月

[5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期

[6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期

[7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期

[8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年

[9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期

[10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月

--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==

<center>聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628</center>

===Abstract===

English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.

===Key words===

English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”

===摘要===

英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。

===关键词===

英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”

===1. Introduction===

Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation.

===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===

“Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''. He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” (Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (ibid: 70)

This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peiji’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.

===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===

A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326).

The inflected forms in modern English mainly include conjugation, declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:

Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。
Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).

The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the original sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration.

Due to the difference in inflection between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible to the target reader.

There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.

Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to objective description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”.

Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业”（"homework" in English） who performs the action “写”("writing" in English). That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.

English language, where the subject is given priority to, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority to in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.

Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)
If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)

There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.

Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)
If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)

There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.

Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences.

Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)
Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)

It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候”（"it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to..."） is “I” ("我" in Chinese), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.

Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)
This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)
much sadness to other people
In this example, “这种死亡”（"This kind of death" in English） serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦”（"causes... much pain to the writer himself" in English) as well as “别人看了心里也很难受”（"much sadness to other people" in English） serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” ("这种死亡" in Chinese) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.

Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113).

Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.

English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .

As a result, English sentences are closely related to each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure.

Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)
It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)

The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” ("借来的书" in Chinese) and “books bought” ("自己买的" in Chinese). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.

Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)
It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English transaltion compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.

Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)
Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)

There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the source text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.

Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)
Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)

The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” ("a writer" in English) and “适当的社会活动和文学活动” ("gets properly involved with social and literary activities" in English). Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” ("a writer" in English) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.

Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.

Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context.

Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words.

There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.

Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)
Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)

“范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:
... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...
It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.

Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.

English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.

In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.

Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)
Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.

Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)
Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)

Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.

Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)
The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)

The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.

Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)

Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223).

Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)
Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)

The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” ("书" in Chinese) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.

Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)
As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)

The repeated verb “read” ("看" in Chinese) has been omitted in the translation.

In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.

English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.

Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation.

Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)
Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it.

Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)
At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)

Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.

Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)
Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)

The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.

Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)
The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)

Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.

Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.

===4.Conclusion===

This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved.

===References===

Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company.

Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.

Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.

Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.

Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.

Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou