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2022-01-02T12:48:13Z

Zeng Junlin: /* Introduction */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

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=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
===西方翻译理论发展概述===
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''

=== Abstract ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Key Words ===

Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period

=== 摘要 ===

西方译论大致可以分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。

===关键词 ===

西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期

===Introduction===

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published (1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.

Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of classical translation theory ===

This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.

This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of ancient translation theory ===

The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.

The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the worship and pursuit of "the well-sounded personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon. Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe, a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)

The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.

The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe, a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of Wyclif and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)

This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--Corrected by[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Modern translation theory ===

The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.

The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===

To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.

From what has been discussed above, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.

First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people". Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:41, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Conclusion ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:42, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.

H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.

L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.

Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.

William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.

Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.

20211229 homework

2021-12-30T15:30:06Z

Zeng Junlin: /* 蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 法语语言文学女 202120081477 */

Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]]

PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211013_homework|for Oct 13 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] [[20211020_homework|for Oct 20 - HLM Chapters 21-22]] [[20211027_homework|for Oct 27 - HLM Chapters 23-24]] etc.

==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别女 202020080595==

心较比干多一窍──比干：暴君商(殷)纣王之叔，被誉为圣人。据《史记·殷本纪》载：纣王厌恶比干谏诤不已，怒曰：“吾闻圣人心有七窍。”于是“剖比干，观其心”。

The heart is one more hole than Bigan. Bigan, the uncle of tyrant Shang King Zhou, is known as a saint. According to Historical Records: Yin Dynasty, King Zhou dislikes the advisement of Bigan, so said with anger,"I heard that a saint has seven hole in his heart." Thus, Bigan was anatomized to observe his heart.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

The heart is one more hole than Bigan. Bigan: uncle of King Zhou of the tyrant Shang (Yin), known as a saint. According to the historical records of Yin Benji, King Zhou hated Bigan's admonition and said angrily, "I heard that the heart of Bigan.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 07:15, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 法语语言文学女 202120081477==

古人以为心窍越多越聪明，故以“心较比干多一窍” 形容黛玉绝顶聪明。

病如西子胜三分──西子：即西施。《庄子·天运》说：“西施病心而颦(皱眉)”，益增娇艳。

The ancients thought that the more the mind, the smarter it was, so they described Lin Daiyu Tochter von Lin Ji-hai as extremely clever. Illness like Xi Zi wins three points - Xi Zi: Xi Shi. Zhuangzi Tianyun said: "Xi Shi frowns (frowns) when she is ill", which increases her beauty.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 07:25, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

The ancients thought that the more the mind, the smarter it was, so they described Mascara Jade Forest as extremely clever.
Illness like Xi Zi wins three points - Xi Zi: Xi Shi. Zhuangzi Tianyun said: "Xi Shi frowns (frowns) when she is ill", which increases her beauty.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478==

故以“病如西子胜三分”形容黛玉病弱而娇美。胜：胜过，超过。下面贾宝玉替林黛玉起表字为“颦颦”，亦用西施颦眉之典，但又不敢明说，故编了一套谎活，杜撰了《古今人物通考》书名。
Therefore, Mascara Jade Forest is described as weak and beautiful by "sick as Xizi wins three points". Next, Precious Jade Merchant wrote "Pingping" for Mascara Jade Forest. He also used the code of Xi shi’s frown, but he didn't dare to say it clearly, so he made up a set of lies and invented the title of the general examination of ancient and modern characters. --[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 12:00, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081479==

教引嬷嬷──清代专司教导年幼皇子的女子，称“谙达”。后来世家大族也仿效而行。

“花气袭人”之句：是宋·陆游《村居书喜》中的半句，原诗为七言律诗：

Jiao Yin Mammy -- a woman who was in charge of teaching the young emperor's son in the Qing Dynasty, known as "Jiuda". Later, the big families followed the suit.
The sentence "flower spirit attacks people" is half of a sentence in "Village Residence Book Xi" by Song · Lu You. The original poem is a seven-word poem: --[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

Guide Mammy——a woman who in charge of teaching young sons of Emperor in the Qing Dynasty，called “Anda”. Later, the big families followed the suit.

The sentence "flower spirit attacks people" is half of a sentence in "Book of Happiness Living in Village" by Lu You in Song Dynasty.The original poem is a seven-word poem：--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 01:43, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081480==

“红桥梅市晓山横，白塔樊江春水生。花气袭人知骤暖，鹊声穿树喜新晴。坊场酒贱贫犹醉，原野泥深老亦耕。”

Mountains stand away from the Hong Qiaomei market and the Fanjiang river flows beside the Bai Tower. The glamour of flowers notices the spring and Tweetie magpies are happy because of a sunny day. The price of unstrained wine is so low that poor me can have a good drink. Farmers are diligently ploughing and sowing. --[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 01:37, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学女 202120081481==

最喜先期官赋足，经年无吏叩柴荆。”意谓因闻到花香，才知天气已经骤然暖和了。第二十三回和二十八回均引作“花气袭人知昼暖”，将“骤”误为“昼”，可能是曹雪芹误记。

==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081482==

省(xǐ ng醒)——典出《礼记·曲礼上》：“凡为人子之礼，冬温而夏凊，昏定而晨省。”[凊( jìng净)：凉。]

Xing (pronounced xǐng) – canonical originated from ''The Book of Rites • Qu Li'': "The etiquette of being sons is: make his parents feel warm in winter, cool in the summer, serve them to bed at night, and greet them in the morning. [Jing (pronounced jìng)]--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 11:27, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Xing (pronounced xǐng) – canonical originated from ''The Book of Rites • Qu Li'': "The etiquette of being sons: make his parents feel warm in winter and cool in summer, serve them to go to bed at night, and greet them in the morning. [Jing (pronounced jìng)]--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 11:50, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081483==

意谓子女冬天要为父母焐暖被褥，夏天要为父母扇凉床席，每天早上要向父母请安问好，晚上要服侍父母安寝。泛指子女对父母的孝敬无微不至。故“省”即“晨省”的略称。

This means that children must warm the bedding for their parents in winter, cool the bed mats for their parents in summer, greet their parents every morning, and serve their parents to sleep well at night. It generally refers to the meticulous respect of children to their parents. Therefore, "introspection" is an abbreviation of "morning introspection". --[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 11:48, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnuó 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081484==

指子女早晨向父母请安问候的礼节。

第四回薄命女偏逢薄命郎，葫芦僧判断葫芦案

It refers to the politeness children greet their parents in the morning.

The Fourth Encountering of Unfortunate Couples;Fool Judge and the Misjudge Case--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 13:27, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081485==

却说黛玉同姐妹们至王夫人处，见王夫人正和兄嫂处的来使计议家务，又说姨母家遭人命官司等语。因见王夫人事情冗杂，姐妹们遂出来 ,至寡嫂李氏房中来了。原来这李氏即贾珠之妻。

Mascara Jade Forest, for we shall now return to our story, having come, along with her cousins to Lady King's apartments, found Lady King discussing certain domestic occurrences with the messengers, who had arrived from her elder brother's wife's home, and conversing also about the case of homicide, in which the family of her mother's sister had become involved, and other such relevant topics. Perceiving how pressing and perplexing were the matters in which Lady King was engaged, the young ladies promptly left her apartments, and came over to the rooms of their widow sister-in-law, Silk Plum.
This Silk Plum had originally been the spouse of Bead Merchant. --[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 08:30, 29 December 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 08:30, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学女 202120081486==

珠虽夭亡，幸存一子，取名贾兰，今方五岁，已入学攻书。这李氏亦系金陵名宦之女。父名李守中，曾为国子祭酒；族中男女无不读诗书者。

Although Bead Merchant had died at an early age, he had the good fortune of leaving behind him a son, to whom the name of Cymbidium Merchant was given. He was, at this period, just in his fifth year, and had already entered school, and applied himself to books. This Silk Plum was also the daughter of an official of note in Gold Mausoleum. Her father's name was Midfielder Plum, who had, at one time, been Imperial Libationer. Among his kindred, men as well as women had all devoted themselves to poetry and letters. --[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 07:24, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

Bead Merchant died young. But luckily, she had a son, Cymbidium Merchant, just five and already in school. Her father, Midfielder Plum, a notable of Jinling, had served as a Libationer in the Imperial College. All the sons and daughters of his clan had been devoted to the study of the classics. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 10:06, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学女 202120081487==

至李守中继续以来，便谓“女子无才便是德”，故生了此女，不曾叫他十分认真读书，只不过将些《女四书》、《烈女传》读读，认得几个字，记得前朝这几个贤女便了；

When Midfielder Plum became head of the family, however, in the belief that “an unaccomplished woman is a virtuous one,” instead of making his daughter study hard he simply had her taught enough to read a few books such as the ''Four Books for Girls'', ''Biographies of Martyred Women'', and ''Lives of Exemplary Ladies'' so that she might be able to recognize a few characters and be familiar with some of the models of female virtue of former ages; --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 10:05, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学女 202120081488==

却以纺绩女红为要，因取名为李纨，字宫裁。所以这李纨虽青春丧偶，且居处于膏粱锦绣之中，竟如槁木死灰一般，一概不问不闻，惟知侍亲养子，闲时陪侍小姑等针黹、诵读而已。

She was named Silk Plum and her courtesy name was Gongcai (imperial tailor) because she was hoped to be good at embroidery. Young but widowed, she looked like a dried-up wood, though living in a rich family. She did't ask any questions or wonder anything, but to serve her parents and raise her son, and in her spare time, she read and embroidered with her sisters-in-law.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 03:55, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学女 202120081489==

今黛玉虽客居于此，已有这几个姑嫂相伴，除老父之外，馀者也就无用虑了。如今且说贾雨村授了应天府，一到任，就有件人命官司详至案下，却是两家争买一婢，各不相让，以致殴伤人命。彼时雨村即拘原告来审。

Although Mascara Jade was now living here as a guest, she had the company of these couins and sisters-in-law. She had nothing to worry about, except for her old father. Now Rainvillage Merchant was assigned as the officer in the God Promise Mansion. As soon as he arrived, there was a lawsuit for human life on his desk. Two families competed to buy a maid, but neither gave way, resulting in an assault and injury. He then took the plaintiff to trial.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 08:41, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081490==

那原告道：“被打死的乃是小人的主人。因那日买了个丫头，不想系拐子拐来卖的。这拐子先已得了我家的银子，我家小主人原说第二日方是好日，再接入门；

==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491==

这拐子又悄悄的卖与了薛家，被我们知道了，去找拿卖主，夺取丫头。无奈薛家原系金陵一霸，倚财仗势，众豪奴将我小主人竟打死了。凶身主仆已皆逃走，无有踪迹，只剩了几个局外的人。

But this kidnapper stealthily sold her over again to the Hsueeh family. When we came to know of this, we went in search of the seller to lay hold of him, and bring back the girl by force. But the Hsueeh party has been all along the bully of Chin Ling, full of confidence in his wealth and prestige; and his arrogant menials in a body seized our master and beat him to death.The murderous master and his crew have all long ago made good their escape, leaving no trace behind them, while there only remain several parties not concerned in the affair. --[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 13:37, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

But this kidnapper stealthily sold her to the Marshgrass family. When we knew of this, we went in search of the seller to lay hold of him, and brought back the girl by force. But the Marshgrass party has been all along the bully of Gold Mausoleum, full of confidence in his asset and prestige; and his arrogant menials in a body seized our master and beat him to death.The murderous master and his crew have all long ago made good their escape, leaving no trace behind them, while there only remain several people not concerned in the affair. --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 06:29, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492==

小人告了一年的状，竟无人作主。求太老爷拘拿凶犯，以扶善良，存殁感激天恩不尽！”雨村听了，大怒道：“那有这等事：打死人竟白白的走了，拿不来的？”

I filed a charge a year ago, but there's no answer. I beg Your Honour to arrest the criminals, punish the evil-doers and help the widow and orphan. Then both the living and the dead will be grateful!" "This is a scandal!" fumed Rainvillage Merchant. "How can men commit a murder and go without punishment?"--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 06:22, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别男 202120081493==

便发签差公人，立刻将凶犯家属拿来拷问。只见案旁站着一个门子，使眼色不叫他发签。雨村心下狐疑，只得停了手。He sent a signature to send the official and immediately tortured the family members of the murderer. Seeing a boy page of the court standing by the case, who didn't ask Yucun to sign. Yucun was suspicious and had to stop.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 01:45, 26 December 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

He sent a signature to send the official and immediately tortured the family members of the murderer. Seeing a boy page of the court standing by the case, who didn't ask Yucun to sign. Yucun was suspicious and had to stop to do it.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==

退堂至密室，令从人退去，只留这门子一人伏侍。门子忙上前请安，笑问：“老爷一向加官进禄，八九年来，就忘了我了？”
He retreated to the secret room and ordered everyone to leave the door man alone. The door man is busy forward to ask for his respect, smile to ask: "the master has been adding officials into the salary, eight or nine years, forget me?"--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 11:20, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

He retreated to the secret room and ordered everyone to leave except for the door man. The door man is busy forward to ask for his respect, smile to ask: "the master has been adding officials into the salary, eight or nine years, forget me?"--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 01:27, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081495==

雨村道：“我看你十分眼熟，但一时总想不起来。”门子笑道：“老爷怎么把出身之地竟忘了？老爷不记得当年葫芦庙里的事么？”雨村大惊，方想起往事。

Rainvillage Merchant said, “You look so familiar, but I can’t remember you at once.” the door man laughed, “How could you forget your birthplace, my Master? Do you forget what happened in the Gourd Temple?” After listening, Rainvillage Merchant felt surprised, and the remembered the past.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 01:22, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

Rainvillage Merchant said, “You look so familiar, but I can’t remember you at once.” gatekeeper laughed, “How could you forget your birthplace, my Master? Do you forget what happened in the Gourd Temple?” After listening, Rainvillage Merchant felt surprised, and the remembered the past.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 05:51, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081496==

原来这门子本是葫芦庙里一个小沙弥，因被火之后无处安身，想这件生意倒还轻省，耐不得寺院凄凉，遂趁年纪轻，蓄了发，充当门子。雨村那里想得是他。

It turned out that the gatekeeper was originally a little monk in Gourd Temple. Because he had no place to settle down after the temple being burned by the fire, he thought this business was easy and could not bear the desolation of the temple. So he saved his hair and acted as a gatekeeper while he was young. Rainvillage Merchant didn't think it was him.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 07:10, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

The fact is that this Retainer had been a young monk in the Gourd Temple, but because of its destruction by fire, he had no place to rest his frame, he remembered how light and easy was, after all, this kind of occupation, and being unable to reconcile himself to the solitude and quiet of a temple, he accordingly availed himself of his years, which were as yet few, to let his hair grow, and become a retainer. Rainvillage Merchant had had no idea that it was him. --[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 11:03, 26 December 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 13:52, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081497==

便忙携手笑道：“原来还是故人。”因赏他坐了说话。这门子不敢坐。雨村笑道：“你也算贫贱之交了。此系私室，但坐不妨。”门子才斜签着坐下。

Hastily taking his hand, he smilingly said, "You are, indeed, an old acquaintance!" and then pressed him to take a seat, so as to have a chat with more ease, but the Retainer would not presume to sit down. "Friendships," Rainvillage Merchant remarked, putting on a smiling expression, "contracted in poor circumstances should not be forgotten! This is a private room, so that if you sat down, what would it matter?" The Retainer thereupon craved permission to take a seat and sat down gingerly.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 11:04, 26 December 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 13:53, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

Hastily taking his hand, he smilingly said, "You are, indeed, an old acquaintance!" and then asked him to take a seat, so as to have a further pleasant chat, but the doorman dared not to sit down. "Friendships," Yue-ts'un remarked, putting on a smiling expression, "contracted in poor circumstances should not be forgotten! This is a private room, so that it would not offend anyone if you just sat down." The doorman thereupon craved permission to take a seat and sat down gingerly.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 11:20, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081498==

雨村道：“方才何故不令发签？”门子道：“老爷荣任到此，难道就没抄一张本省的‘护官符’来不成？”雨村忙问：“何为‘护官符’？”

Chia Yu-tsun asked, "Why did you not grant me the passport just now?" The doorman answered that "Your Excellency, when you are to assume office here, haven't you hold some relations to a guard officer? " Yu-tsun was confused and thus continued, "guard officer?".--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:30, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

Chia Yu-tsun asked, "Why did you not grant me the warrant just now?" The doorman answered that "Your Excellency, when you are to assume office here, haven't you hold 'a protection charm' of the province? " Yu-tsun was confused and thus continued, "What's the protection charm?".--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 15:58, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学女 202120081499==

门子道：“如今凡作地方官的，都有一个私单，上面写的是本省最有权势极富贵的大乡绅名姓，各省皆然。倘若不知，一时触犯了这样的人家，不但官爵，只怕连性命也难保呢！

The doorman said: “Nowadays every magistrate has a personal list of the names of the most powerful and wealthy squires in the province. It’s the same in all the provinces. If you don’t do this, you may lose your position even your life once you offend them.”--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 14:47, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

The doorman said: “Nowadays every magistrate has a personal list, which contains the names of the most powerful and wealthy squires in the province. It’s the same in all the provinces. If you don’t do this, you may lose your position even your life once you offend them.”--[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 11:50, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081500==

所以叫做‘护官符’。方才所说的这薛家，老爷如何惹得他！他这件官司并无难断之处，从前的官府都因碍着情分脸面，所以如此。”

“So it was called “the amulet of protection from the feudal official. The family Xue we talked just now, we can’t offend them, my lord. His lawsuit had no difficulty, however, the former official had trouble in the relationship, thus causing the situation then.”. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 09:46, 25 December 2021 (UTC)
So it's called ‘Guardian Talisman’. The Xue family just said, how did the master provoke him! There is nothing difficult about him in this lawsuit. The previous government officials were obstructed because of their affection, so it was so. "--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081501==

一面说，一面从顺袋中取出一张抄的“护官符”来，递与雨村看时，上面皆是本地大族名宦之家的俗谚口碑，云：贾不假，白玉为堂金作马。
On the one hand, while taking out a copy of the "protection charm" from the Shun bag, when it was handed it to Rain-Village, it was all the common sayings of the family of famous local eunuchs, saying: Jia is not fake, and Bai Yu is the gold of the house. Be a horse.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2021 (UTC)
At the same time, he took out a copy of "protecting official Fu" from shun's bag and handed it to Yucun. It was all the common words of the family of the local great family: Jia is true, and white jade is a horse made of gold for tang.
--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 12:36, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学女 202120081503==

阿房宫，三百里，住不下金陵一个史。东海缺少白玉床，龙王来请金陵王。丰年好大雪，珍珠如土金如铁。
Efang Palace, 300 miles, can not live in Jinling a history. The East Sea lacks a white jade bed, the Dragon King came to invite the King of Jinling. A good year of snow, pearls like earth and gold like iron.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 12:43, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学女 202120081504==

雨村尚未看完，忽闻传点，报：“王老爷来拜。”雨村忙具衣冠接迎，有顿饭工夫，方回来问这门子。门子道：“四家皆连络有亲，一损俱损，一荣俱荣。
Rainvillage Merchant has not finished reading, suddenly smell spread point, report: "Wang master came to visit." Rainvillage Merchant hurriedly arranged his clothes to meet him and had a meal before he came back to ask about it. Siemens way: "the four are connected to have relatives, a failure other destroyed, a glory other glory.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 06:45, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

Rainvillage Merchant has not finished reading, but suddenly heard from the messenger saying : "Wang master come to visit." Rainvillage Merchant hurriedly arranged his clothes to welcome him. Only after a meal did he come back to ask Menzi, who said: "the four families are closely connected, so do their honor and failure.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:12, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081505==

今告打死人之薛，就是‘丰年大雪’之薛。不单靠这三家，他的世交亲友在都在外的本也不少，老爷如今拿谁去？”雨村听说，便笑问门子道：“这样说来，却怎么了结此案？

The xue of killing people is the xue of 'heavy snow in the year of plenty'. He has not only these three families, but also many family friends and relatives who are away from home. Who are you going to take now?" Rain village heard, then smiled and asked Siemens way: "So say, but how to settle the case?--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:05, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

The xue of killing people is the xue of 'heavy snow in the year of plenty'. He has not only these three families, but also many family friends and relatives who are away from home. Who are you going to take now?" Rain village heard, then smiled and asked Siemens way: "So say, but how to settle the case?--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 06:35, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506==

你大约也深知这凶犯躲的方向了？”门子笑道：“不瞒老爷说，不但这凶犯躲的方向，并这拐的人我也知道，死鬼买主也深知道，待我细说与老爷听：

"You probably know where the murderer is hiding? " The doorman smiled and said, "to tell you the truth, I know not only the direction the murderer is hiding, but also the people who was abducted. The dead ghost buyer also knows. Let me tell you in detail:--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 06:34, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

Maybe you know the direction in which the murderer is hiding."The doorman said with a smile: "I don't want to hide it from the master, not only I know the direction in which the murderer is hiding, but also I know the person who abducted it, and the buyer of the dead ghost knows it well. WLet me talk to you in detail: --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 08:55, 30 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507==

这个被打死的是一个小乡宦之子，名唤冯渊，父母俱亡，又无兄弟，守着些薄产度日。年纪十八九岁，酷爱男风，不好女色。这也是前生冤孽，可巧遇见这丫头，他便一眼看上了，立意买来作妾，设誓不近男色，也不再娶第二个了。

The man who was killed was the son of a small township official, named Feng Yuan. His parents died and had no brothers. He lived on a low income. He is eighteen or nine years old. He loves men and is not good at women. This is also an injustice in his previous life. But when he happened to meet this girl, he took a fancy to it and decided to buy it as a concubine. He swore that he would not be close to a man and would not marry a second one. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 05:38, 27 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

The man who was killed, was the son of one of the minor local gentry, named Feng Yuan. Both his parents died and he had no brother, living on his small property. With an age of eighteen or nineteen he was a confirmed queer and took no interest in women. But then, as the entanglements in a former life, he ran into this girl and fell for her and made up his mind to buy her for his concubine. He swore to have no more to do with men and to marry no other wife.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 13:41, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081508==

所以郑重其事，必得三日后方进门。谁知这拐子又偷卖与薛家，他意欲卷了两家的银子逃去；谁知又走不脱，两家拿住，打了个半死，都不肯收银，各要领人。

So he insisted on her entering the house three days later. Who could know that the kidnapper sell her on the sly to the Xues to abscond with the payment from both? However, before he could run, they nabbed him and beat him, leaving him half dead. Both refused to take back their money -- both wanted the girl.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 13:35, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

So he had to wait three days before he could enter the house. Who would have thought that this trafficker would secretly sell to the Xue family again? He tried to escape with the money from both families.However, before he could run, they nabbed him and beat him, leaving him half dead. Both refused to take back their money -- both wanted the girl.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 00:44, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学女 202120081509==

那薛公子便喝令下人动手，将冯公子打了个稀烂，抬回去三日竟死了。这薛公子原择下日子要上京的，既打了人，夺了丫头，他便没事人一般，只管带了家眷走他的路，并非为此而逃；

He then rudely ordered his subordinates to do something about it, and beat Feng up so badly that he was carried home and died within three days. The Duke of Xue had intended to go to the capital in a few days, and since he had beaten and robbed the maid, he acted as if nothing had happened, and simply took his family away, not because of this escape;--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 06:59, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081510==

这人命些些小事，自有他弟兄、奴仆在此料理。这且别说，老爷可知这被卖的丫头是谁？”雨村道：“我如何晓得？”门子冷笑道：“这人还是老爷的大恩人呢！

human lives are merely some the minor matters, which will be properly dealt by his brothers and servants. Just leave that alone. Do you know who the girl is that was sold?" Yu Cun replyed:"How should I know?" Menzi laughed coldly and said, "This person is a great benefactor of you. My lordship! --[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 13:33, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081511==

他就是葫芦庙旁住的甄老爷的女儿，小名英莲的。”雨村骇然道：“原来是他！听见他自五岁被人拐去，怎么如今才卖呢？”门子道：“这种拐子单拐幼女，养至十二三岁，带至他乡转卖。

She is the daughter of Master Truth, nicknamed Pity, who lived by the Gourd Temple." Yu Cun shocked: "So it's her! I heard that she was abducted at five, but why is she being sold recently?" Menzi said:"This kind of abductor abducts only young girls and raises them until they are 12 or 13 years old, then takes them to other places and sells them. --[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 13:20, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081512==

当日这英莲，我们天天哄他玩耍，极相熟的，所以隔了七八年，虽模样儿出脱的齐整，然大段未改，所以认得；且他眉心中原有米粒大的一点胭脂记，从胎里带来的。

When Yinglian was a little girl, we played with her every day and were very familiar with each other. Her appearance didn’t change a lot after seven or eight years though she has grown prettier than before, so we still remembered her; besides, her eyebrows came to a little carmine point (the size of a grain of rice) in the middle, which was the birthmark.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 05:53, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081513==

偏这拐子又租了我的房子居住，那日拐子不在家，我也曾问他。他说是打怕了的，万不敢说，只说拐子是他的亲爹，因无钱还债才卖的。再四哄他，他又哭了，只说：‘我原不记得小时的事。’

The trafficker had rented my house to live in by coincidence. I had ever asked her one day when the trafficker was not at home. She said that she dared not to say anything after being attacked for a long time, and only answered that he was her father who sold her to pay off the debts. By coaxing her for several times, she cried again and said that "I don’t remember what happened when I was a child".--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

The kidnapper just happened to rent the houses from me. One day, when he was not at home, I asked her about such a thing. She told me that she was afraid to say anything after being beaten so much; she only insisted that he was her father who sold her to pay off his debts. When I tried repeatedly to coax it out of her, she burst into tears and said that 'I do not remember what happened in my childhood.'--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:29, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514==

这无可疑了。那日冯公子相见了，兑了银子，因拐子醉了，英莲自叹说：‘我今日罪孽可满了！’后又听见三日后才过门，他又转有忧愁之态。

There is not doubt that the girl who was carried off by the kidnapper is Yinglian all right. The day when Feng Yuan met her and paid down his silver, the kidnapper had got drunk. And then, Yinglian sighed, 'I am overwhelmed by my sins today!' However, her gloom started deepening again, when she heard that Feng Yuan would not be coming and picking her up for three days.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:14, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

There is not doubt that the girl who was carried off by the kidnapper is Yinglian all right. The day when Feng Yuan met her and paid down his silver, the kidnapper had got drunk. And then, Yinglian sighed, 'I am overwhelmed by my sins today!'Later, she heard that it would be three days before Mr. Feng would marry her, and again she turned sad.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 16:27, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515==

我又不忍，等拐子出去，又叫内人去解劝他：‘这冯公子必待好日期来接，可知必不以丫鬟相看。况他是个绝风流人品，家里颇过得，素性又最厌恶堂客，今竟破价买你，后事不言可知。

I could not bear it, so I waited for the kidnapper to go out, and asked my wife to go and persuade him: 'Mr. Feng must be waiting for a good date to come and take you, so I know that he would never look at you as a maid. Besides, he is a man of great elegance, and his family is well off.He has always hated parishioners, but now he has gone so far as to buy you at a price that it is easy to tell what will happen.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 16:24, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

I could not bear it, so I waited for the kidnapper to go out, and asked my wife to persuade him: “Mr. Feng must be waiting for a good date to come and take you, so I know that he would never look at you as a maid. Besides, he is a man of great elegance, and his family is well off. He has always hated women, but now he has gone so far as to buy you at such a price that it is easy to tell what will happen.”--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 03:22, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081516==

只耐得三两日，何必忧闷？’他听如此说，方略解些，自谓从此得所。谁料天下竟有不如意事，第二日，他偏又卖与了薛家。

Only for three or two days, why bother to be depressed? Hearing this, he relieved a little bit, saying that he would get a place to settle since then. Unexpectedly, everything is never perfect. On the next day, he was sold to the Marshgrass.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 07:13, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

You only have to wait two or three days, so why should you be worried?' At these words, he was relieved a little bit, saying that he would get a place to settle since then. Unexpectedly, everything is never perfect. On the next day, she was sold to the Marshgrass.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 12:31, 29 December 2021 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 12:31, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学女 202120081517==

若卖与第二家还好，这薛公子的混名，人称他‘呆霸王’，最是天下第一个弄性尚气的人，而且使钱如土。只打了个落花流水，生拖死拽，把个英莲拖去，如今也不知死活。

If it had been sold Wiselotus Potterymaker to someone else, it would have been fine, but the situation was not so good for this Xue Pan, whom people called 'the Dull King'. He was a fop with a violent temper and a willful temper, who spent money like dirt. He only beat up Wiselotus Potterymaker and dragged her out roughly, and her death is still unknown.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 12:27, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

It would be better if Wiselotus Potterymaker was sold to the second person. The inflame of Dragon Marshgrass who was called Dull Overlord was the most capricious man in the world and spent money like the earth. He fought with those people who shanghaied Wiselotus Potterymaker, and scrambled for Wiselotus whose life was not assured.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 07:44, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==

这冯公子空喜一场，一念未遂，反花了钱，送了命，岂不可叹！”雨村听了，也叹道：“这也是他们的孽障遭遇，亦非偶然，不然这冯渊如何偏只看上了这英莲？

“Feng Yuan dreamed of happiness, but instead of finding it he lost his life. What a pity!” Rain Village Merchant heard it and signed: “ that is also their evil encounter which is not a coincidence. Otherwise, Feng Yuan only had a crush on Ying Liam?”--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 07:35, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

“Mr. Feng’s dream stamped in the dust, but not only did the wish not come true, but it also cost a lot of money and even lose his life. What a pity!” Rain Village Merchant heard it and signed: “ that is also their evil encounter which is not a coincidence. Otherwise, Feng Yuan only had a crush on Pity Zhen?”--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 08:37, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==

这英莲受了拐子这几年折磨，才得了个路头，且又是个多情的，若果聚合了，倒是件美事，偏又生出这段事来。这薛家纵比冯家富贵，想其为人，自然姬妾众多，淫佚无度，未必及冯渊定情于一人。

Finally, Pity Zhen could get rid of the miserable life after being tortured by the trafficker for so many years. As Xue Pan is an amorous person, it would be a good thing if she could marry to him. However, such an unexpected thing deliberately happened. Even if the Xue family is richer than the Feng family, but think of his moral quality, he must be a man with many concubines and indulge himself in a luxury and incontinent life. In addition, He may not be devoted to only one person as Feng Yuan would do.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 07:55, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

Pity Zhen has been tortured by human traffickers for several years before she can finally get rid of it. Although Dragon Marshgrass is an amorous person, it would be a good thing if she could marry and tie the knot. However, such an unbelievable thing deliberately happened. Even if the Xue family is richer than the Feng family, it's normal to think of him as a man with many concubines. He is lost without measure. He may not be devoted to one person as Feng Yuan does.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 14:35, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081520==

这正是梦幻情缘，恰遇见一对薄命儿女。且不要议论他人，只目今这官司如何剖断才好？”门子笑道：“老爷当年何其明决，今日何反成个没主意的人了？

It is exactly the love of dream, coincidentally to be a pair of ill-fated couple. Not to mention other things, but how should we judge this case today?" The servant said with a smile, "Your Lordship was so clear and decisive back then, why are you so hesitant and irresolute now?"--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 14:28, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

It should be the love of dream, only to be an ill-fated couple. Don’t talk about others for the moment. It’s crucial that this case be judged properly.” The servant said with a smile, “ how decisive you were in those days. Why are you so irresolute at the present ?”--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081521==

小的听见老爷补升此任，系贾府、王府之力。此薛蟠即贾府之亲，老爷何不顺水行舟，做个人情，将此案了结，日后也好去见贾、王二公。”

I heard that you assumed office with the help of Merchant Mansion and King Mansion. Dragon Marshgrass is a relative of Merchant Mansion. Why don’t you do him a special favor, making use of the opportunity to settle the case, so that you can make a smooth explanation to Master Merchant and Master King in days to come.”--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 07:03, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

I heard that you got a promotion additionally with the help of Merchant Mansion and King Mansion. Dragon Marshgrass is a relative of Merchant Mansion. Why don’t you do him a special favor, making use of the opportunity to settle the case, so that you can make a smooth explanation to master Master Merchant and Master King in days to come.”--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 05:42, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081522==

雨村道：“你说的何尝不是，但事关人命，蒙皇上隆恩，起复委用，正竭力图报之时，岂可因私枉法？是实不忍为的。”门子听了，冷笑道：

Rain Village Merchant says: " What you said is right, but it is a matter of people's lives.I am so grateful that the emperor can appoint me. It's the time when I need to try my best to reward.Should I ignore the law for personal gain? It is really unbearable."The doorman listened, and said with a sneer:--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 05:38, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

Rain Village Merchant said:" What you said is right, but it is a matter of life. I am so grateful that the emperor can restore me to the commission. It's the time when I need to try my best to repay it, how can I ignore the law for personal gain? It is really unbearable." Hearing this, the doorman said with a sneer: --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 07:51, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081523==

“老爷说的自是正理，但如今世上是行不去的。岂不闻古人说的：‘大丈夫相时而动。’又说：‘趋吉避凶者为君子。’依老爷这话，不但不能报效朝廷，亦且自身不保，还要三思为妥。”

“What lord said is reasonable, but it is unfeasible in the current world. Have you not heard what the ancients said:’ A real man can take action according to the specific situation’, and ‘The one who can avoid calamity and bring on good fortune is a gentleman.’ According to lord’s words, you not only can’t serve the court, but also can’t protect yourself. You’d better think it over. ‘ --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 15:40, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

"What the Lordship says is true, but it is not possible to do it in the world today. Don't you know what the ancients said: 'A great man moves with the times.' And they also say, 'A gentleman is a gentleman who tries to avoid bad luck. According to you, not only will you not be able to serve the court, but you will also not be able to protect yourself, so you should think twice."--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 13:11, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学女 202120081524==

雨村低了头，半日方说道：“依你怎么着？”门子道：“小人已想了个很好的主意在此：老爷明日坐堂，只管虚张声势，动文书，发签拿人。

Djia Yu-tsun bowed his head for half a day before saying, "What do you think?" Mencius said, "I have a very good idea here: Your Lordship will sit in the hall tomorrow, just bluff, move the papers and issue the signatures to take the people.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 13:09, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学）男 202120081525==

凶犯自然是拿不来的，原告固是不依，只用将薛家族人及奴仆人等拿几个来拷问；小的在暗中调停，令他们报个‘暴病身亡’，合族中及地方上共递一张保呈。

Naturally, the murderer could not get it. The plaintiff did not follow it. He only took a few of the Xue family and slave servants to torture them; The small ones were secretly mediating, so that they reported a "violent illness" and a joint guarantee was handed over to the middle and local communities.--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 11:25, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

The murderer could not get it. The plaintiff did not follow it. He only took a few of Xue family and slave servants to torture them; I was secretly mediating, so that they reported a "violent illness" and a joint guarantee was handed over by close family and local community.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 08:45, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081526==

老爷只说善能扶鸾请仙，堂上设了乩坛，令军民人等只管来看。老爷便说：‘乩仙批了，死者冯渊与薛蟠原系夙孽，今犯狭路相遇，原应了结：

The lord requested to set out the altar in order to invite immortals to come, and let the military and people to come to see. The lord then said that after coscinomancy finished, the dead Feng Yuan and Dragon Marshgrass should have come to an end because they used to be long-standing and are bound to meet head-on on a narrow road.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 14:46, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

The lord requested to set out the altar in order to invite immortals to come, and let the military and people to come to see. The lord then said that the coscinomancy implied that the dead Feng Yuan and Dragon Marshgrass should have come to an end because they used to be long-standing and are bound to meet head-on on a narrow road.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 14:57, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527==

今薛蟠已得了无名之病，被冯渊的魂魄追索而死。其祸皆由拐子而起，除将拐子按法处治外，馀不累及’等语。小人暗中嘱咐拐子，令其实招。

Now Dragon Marshgrass suffered from a nameless disease and died because he was pursued by Feng Yuan's soul. The disaster is caused by the trickster so he will be punished according to the law, not involving others. The villain secretly asked the trickster to tell the truth.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 15:05, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528==

众人见乩仙批语与拐子相符，自然不疑了。薛家有的是钱，老爷断一千也可，五百也可，与冯家作烧埋之费。那冯家也无甚要紧的人，不过为的是钱，有了银子，也就无话了。

The crowed had no doubt after they saw the remarks of divinities in accordance with the trickster. The Xues had plenty of money, the Lord could give one thousand Yang yuan, or five hundred, to the Fengs for funeral expenses.There was no one of special importance in the Fengs, all they wanted was just the money. Having received the money, they wouldn't say anything more.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 14:25, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

The people had no doubt after seeing the remarks of divinities in accordance with the trickster. The Xues had plenty of money, the Lord could give one thousand yuan, or five hundred, to the Fengs for funeral expenses.There was no one of special importance in the Fengs, all they wanted was just the money. Having received the money, they wouldn't say anything more. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529==

老爷细想，此计如何？”雨村笑道：“不妥，不妥。等我再斟酌斟酌，压服得口声才好。”二人计议已定。至次日坐堂，勾取一干有名人犯，雨村详加审问。

The lord thought carefully, and asked how about this plan? Rainvillage Merchant laughed and said: “ It’s not the right way, it’s not the right way. Let me think the matter over, the plan should be convinced by all the others.” Then they confirmed the plan. At tomorrow’s court session, convening all criminals, whose name was known, Rainvillage Merchant questioned them seriously. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:31, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

What about this plan, Master?" Yu Cun laughed, "No, it's not good. I'll have to think about it again, so that I can convince them." The two of them agreed on a plan. The next day they sat in the courtroom and took a number of famous criminals, and Yu Cun interrogated them in detail.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 08:24, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学女 202120081530==

果见冯家人口稀少，不过赖此欲得些烧埋之银；薛家仗势倚情，偏不相让：故致颠倒未决。雨村便徇情枉法，胡乱判断了此案。
The Feng family, with a small population, wanted to get some silver to burn and bury, but the Xue family, relying on their power and affection, did not give in: so the case was reversed. The Yu Cun family then bent the law and judged the case haphazardly.

Seeing Feng with such a small population, they wanted to get some silver to burn and bury, but the Xue, relying on their power and affection, did not give in: so the case was reversed. Rain Village then bent the law and judged the case haphazardly.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 09:01, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081531==

冯家得了许多烧埋银子，也就无甚话说了。雨村便疾忙修书二封与贾政并京营节度使王子腾，不过说“令甥之事已完，不必过虑”之言寄去。

The Feng family got a lot of buried silver and had nothing to say. Rain village will quickly repair two letters and Master Merchant and Soar King,and said "nephew has finished, do not have to worry about" words to send.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 10:25, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

The Feng family got a lot of buried silver and had nothing to say. Rain village will quickly repair two letters to Master Merchant and Soar King, and said "things about your nephew has been finished, do not need to worry about" words to send.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 11:28, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081532==

此事皆由葫芦庙内沙弥新门子所为，雨村又恐他对人说出当日贫贱时事来，因此心中大不乐意。后来到底寻了他一个不是，远远的充发了才罢。当下言不着雨村。

It was all done by a novice monk Xinmenzi in Gourd Temple. Rainvillage was afraid that he would tell people about the awful current affairs of that day, so he was very unsatisfied. Later, Rainvillage pick holes in him , and banished him far away. Now, there was no one talking about bad things about Rainvillage.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 14:05, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学女 202120081533==

且说那买了英莲、打死冯渊的薛公子，亦系金陵人氏，本是书香继世之家。只是如今这薛公子幼年丧父，寡母又怜他是个独根孤种，未免溺爱纵容些，遂致老大无成；

==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081534==

且家中有百万之富，现领着内帑钱粮，采办杂料。这薛公子学名薛蟠，表字文起，性情奢侈，言语傲慢；虽也上过学，不过略识几个字，终日惟有斗鸡走马，游山玩景而已。

In addition, there are countless money in the family, and now people are taking the domestic money and food to purchase stuffs. The Mr. Xue so-called Dragon Marshgrass, is entitled as Wenqi with extravagant temperament and arrogant speech. Although he has also gone to school, but he knows a few words, he only like fighting cock walking around the mountains and enjoying the scenery all day long.

In addition, there are countless money in the family, and now people are taking the domestic money and food to purchase stuffs. Mr.Xue, whose name is Dragon Marshgrass, is entitled as Wenqi with extravagant temperament and arrogant speech. Although he has also gone to school, he knows a few words, he only like fighting cock walking around the mountains and enjoying the scenery all day long.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:21, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究男 202120081535==

虽是皇商，一应经纪世事全然不知，不过赖祖、父旧日的情分，户部挂个虚名，支领钱粮；其馀事体，自有伙计、老家人等措办。

Although he was a royal merchant, he knew nothing about economics. However, due to the old affection of his grandfathers and fathers, he was given a virtual position in Board of Revenue to received money and grain, and the rest of affairs were handled by his clerks and old family members.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:43, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Although he was a royal merchant, he knew nothing about economics. However, due to the old affection of his ancestors and his father, he was given a virtual position in Board of Revenue to received money and grain, and the rest of affairs were handled by his clerks and old family members.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 11:08, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536==

寡母王氏，乃现任京营节度使王子腾之妹，与荣国府贾政的夫人王氏是一母所生的姊妹，今年方五十上下，只有薛蟠一子。还有一女，比薛蟠小两岁，乳名宝钗，生得肌骨莹润，举止娴雅。

Wang, the widowed mother, is the sister of Wang Ziteng, the current governor of Jingying Festival and the sister of Wang, the wife of Jia Zheng in the Rongguo mansion. This year, she is about 50, and has only a son Xue Pan. Besides, she has a daughter, whose milk name is Bao Chai, two years younger than Xue Pan. Bao Chai has beautiful body and behave elegantly .

Besides, she has a daughter, whose small name is Precious Hairpin Marshgrass, two years younger than Dragon Marshgrass.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 06:50, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别女 202120081537==

当时他父亲在日极爱此女，令其读书识字，较之乃兄竟高十倍。自父亲死后，见哥哥不能安慰母心，他便不以书字为念，只留心针黹、家计等事，好为母亲分忧代劳。

His father had been so fond of her that he had sent her to read ten times better than her brother. Seeing that her brother could not pacify her mother after her father's death, she stopped thinking about reading and only cared about needle-work and family livelihood in order to share her mother's cares and duties.
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 06:49, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

ever since her father's death, that her brother could not appease the anguish of her mother's heart, she at once dispelled all thoughts of books. and gave her sole mind to needlework, to the menage and other such concerns, so as to be able to participate in her mother's sorrow, and to bear the fatigue in lieu of her.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 10:41, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别女 202120081538==

近因今上崇尚诗礼，征采才能，降不世之隆恩，除聘选妃嫔外，凡世宦名家之女，皆得亲名达部，以备选择为公主、郡主入学陪侍，充为才人、赞善之职。

Recently, the Emperor in order to respect culture, promote etiquette and explore talents, in addition to selecting good wives and mothers to serve the emperor, the daughters of families of hereditary official status and renown were without exception, reported by name to the authorities, and communicated to the Board,in anticipation of the selection for maids in waiting to the Imperial Princesses and daughters of Imperial Princes in their studies, become “Cairen, Zanshan”.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 10:37, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

Recently, in order to respect culture, promote etiquette and explore talents,the Emperor held learning and propriety in high esteem, in addition to selecting consorts and ladies-in-waiting, , the daughters of families of hereditary official status and renown were without exception, reported by name to the authorities, and communicated to the Board,in anticipation of the selection for maids in waiting to the Imperial Princesses and daughters of Imperial Princes in their studies, become “Cairen, Zanshan”.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:54, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别女 202120081540==

自薛蟠父亲死后，各省中所有的买卖承局、总管、伙计人等，见薛蟠年轻不谙世事，便趁时拐骗起来，京都几处生意，渐亦销耗。

Ever since the death of Dragon Marshgrass's father， all the assistants， managers and partners， and other employees in the respective provinces， perceiving how youthful and inexperienced Dragon Marshgrass was in years， readily availed themselves of the time to begin swindling and defrauding. As a result, The business， carried on in various different places in the capital，gradually also began to fall off and to show a deficit.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 08:33, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081541==

薛蟠素闻得都中乃第一繁华之地，正思一游，便趁此机会：一来送妹待选；二来望亲；三来亲自入部销算旧账，再计新支；其实只为游览上国风光之意。

==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学女 202120081542==

因此早已检点下行装细软，以及馈送亲友各色土物人情等类，正择日起身，不想偏遇着那拐子卖英莲。薛蟠见英莲生的不俗，立意买了作妾，又遇冯家来夺，因恃强喝令豪奴将冯渊打死。

Dragon Marshgrass, therefore, has already checked his luggage and jewelry, and also has prepared the local specialty and gifts to his relatives and friends. He was going to set out on another day. Unexpectedly, he met the human trafficker selling Pity Zhen. Seeing that Pity Zhen was pretty, Dragon Marshgrass decided to buy her as a concubine. But he was also robbed by the family Feng,so he ordered a slave to kill Feng Yuan.--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 04:05, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081543==

便将家中事务，一一嘱托了族中人并几个老家人；自己同着母亲、妹子，竟自起身长行去了。人命官司，他却视为儿戏，自谓花上几个钱，没有不了的。

Dragon Marshgrass entrusted the household affairs to the clan middleman and old family members. Then he just went away with his mother and sister. He should deem the affair of murder as a trifling matter and believed it could be easily solved through money.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 12:31, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Then he has entrusted the household affairs to his clans and some from his hometown. While he himself just went away with his mother and sister. He deemed the affair of life and death as nothing and believed that nothing can't be handled by money.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 04:41, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别男 202120081544==

在路不计其日。那日已将入都，又听见母舅王子腾升了九省统制，奉旨出都查边。薛蟠心中暗喜道：“我正愁进京去有舅舅管辖，不能任意挥霍；如今升出去，可知天从人愿。”

No time is counted when on the journey. That day he was about to enter the capital, and heard that mother-uncle Wang Ziten was promoted military commander and ordered to leave the capital to guard the border. Xue Pan merrily thought:" I'm just worried that I can't do whatever I want under uncle's jurisdiction, now he's promoted and about to leave, great! How lucky I am!"

No time is counted when on the journey. That day he was about to enter the capital, and heard that maternal uncle Soar King promoted to nine provinces, by decree out of the capital to check the border.Dragon Marshgrass heart secretly happy: " I was worried about going to the capital to have uncle's jurisdiction, can not be arbitrary spending; now promoted out, I know God from the wishes of man. "--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 05:15, 29 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081545==

因和母亲商议道：“咱们京中虽有几处房舍，只是这十来年没人居住，那看守的人未免偷着租赁给人住，须得先着人去打扫收拾才好。”他母亲道：“何必如此招摇？”

So he discussed with his mother, "Although we have a few premises in the capital, no one has lived there for ten years, the guards may sneakily rent to people to live, we must first ask someone to clean and tidy up." His mother said, "Why do you have to be so flashy? "--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 09:23, 25 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

So he discussed with his mother, "Although we have a few houses in the capital, no one has lived there for ten years. The guards may sneakily rent the house to other people, so we must first send someone to tidy up the house. His mother said, "Why do you have to be so flashy? "--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:50, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081546==

咱们这进京去，原是先拜望亲友，或是在你舅舅处，或是你姨父家，他两家的房舍极是宽敞的，咱们且住下，再慢慢儿的着人去收拾，岂不消停些？”

Now we go to the capital Beijing, and we should visit our relatives first. Your uncle‘s or your aunt‘s husband’s house are good choices, and their houses are very spacious. Let's stay there for a while and then send someone to clean up the house，and it will be more inconspicuous.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:38, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

"We should visit our relatives first during this trip to the capital Beijing. We can either go to your uncle‘s or your aunt‘s husband’s house because both of them are very spacious. Wouldn't it be better if we stay there for the moment and then send someone to clean up the house?"--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:15, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081547==

薛蟠道：“如今舅舅正升了外省去，家里自然忙乱起身，咱们这会子反一窝一拖的奔了去，岂不没眼色呢？”他母亲道：“你舅舅虽升了去，还有你姨父家。

Dragon Marshgrass said: "Now that uncle gets promoted to another province, it's only natural for the household to be bustling about. Wouldn't it be inconsiderate if we come to visit him at this particular moment?" His mother answered:" Be that as it may, we can still go to your aunt's husband's house."--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:33, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081548==

况这几年来，你舅舅、姨娘两处，每每带信捎书接咱们来；如今既来了，你舅舅虽忙着起身，你贾家的姨娘未必不苦留我们，咱们且忙忙的收拾房子，岂不使人见怪？你的意思，我早知道了：

In the past few years, your uncle and aunt have often sent us letters to bring us here. Now that we have come, although your uncle is busy, Merchant's aunt may
try leaving us, we are busy making up the house, won't make people mind? I have already know what you mean: --[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 05:28, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081549==

守着舅舅、姨母住着，未免拘紧了；不如各自住着，好任意施为。你既如此，你自去挑所宅子去住；我和你姨娘，姊妹们别了这几年，却要住几日，我带了你妹子去投你姨娘家去。你道好不好？”

==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学女 202120081550==

薛蟠见母亲如此说，情知扭不过，只得吩咐人夫，一路奔荣国府而来。那时王夫人已知薛蟠官司一事，亏贾雨村就中维持了，才放了心。
Dragon Marshgrass saw his mother said so, I know that the twist can not, only to order the husband, all the way to the Rongguo House and come. At that time, Lady King knew that Dragon Marshgrass lawsuit, thanks to Rainvillage Merchant on the maintenance of the heart.

Seeing that his mother said so,Dragon Marshgrass had no choice but to order the husband to come all the way to Jung-guo-Anwesen. At that time, Lady King was relieved when she knew about Dragon Marshgrass's lawsuit and lost Rainvillage Merchant's support.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 07:34, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别男 202120081551==

又见哥哥升了边缺，正愁少了娘家的亲戚来往，略觉寂寞。过了几日，忽家人报：“姨太太带了哥儿、姐儿，合家进京，在门外下车了。”

Seeing that her brother was promoted, she was worried about the lack of relatives in her mother's family, and felt a little lonely. A few days later, suddenly her family reported: "concubine brought her brothers and sisters to Beijing and got off outside the door."--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 10:02, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Seeing that her brother was promoted, Dragon Marshgrass was worried about the lack of relatives in her mother's family, and felt a little lonely. A few days later, suddenly her family reported: "concubine brought her brothers and sisters to Beijing and got off outside the door."--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552==

喜的王夫人忙带了人，接到大厅上，将薛姨妈等接进去了。姊妹们一朝相见，悲喜交集，自不必说。叙了一番契阔，又引着拜见贾母，将人情土物各种酬献了，合家俱厮见过，又治席接风。

Lady King was so happy that she brought someone to the hall and took Aunt Marshgrass in. The sisters were joy tempered with sorrow to see each other that it goes without saying. Told a story of great deeds, and led to visit Grandma Merchant, all kinds of reward will be offered, together with the furniture saw, and treat the seat to receive wind.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:35, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Mr. Wang was so happy that she brought someone to the hall and took Aunt Xue in. The sisters were in joy tempered with sorrow to see each other that it goes without saying. Told a story of great deeds, and led to visit Grandma Merchant, all kinds of reward will be offered, together with the furniture saw, and treat the seat to receive wind.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 10:07, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553==

薛蟠拜见过贾政、贾琏，又引着见了贾赦、贾珍等。贾政便使人进来对王夫人说：“姨太太已有了年纪，外甥年轻，不知庶务，在外住着，恐又要生事。

Dragon Marshgrass met Master Merchant and Romance Merchant and introduced Pardon Merchant and Treasure Merchant. Master Merchant sent someone in and said to Lady King, "my aunt is old, and my nephew is young. He doesn't know about general affairs. If he is living outside, I am afraid that something will happen again.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 10:10, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

Dragon Marshgrass met Master Merchant and Romance Merchant and introduced Pardon Merchant and Treasure Merchant. Master Merchant sent someone in and said to Lady King, "my aunt is old, and my nephew is young. He doesn't know about general affairs. If he lives outside, I am afraid that he will make some trouble.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081554==

咱们东南角上梨香院那一所房十来间白空闲着，叫人请了姨太太和姐儿、哥儿住了甚好。”王夫人原要留住。贾母也遣人来说：“请姨太太就在这里住下，大家亲密些。”

“We have a room in the southeast corner of Pear Fragrance Court that is vacant, and ask someone to invite the aunt and sister and brother to live here.” Lady King originally wanted to stay. Grandma Merchant also sent someone to say: “Please invite the aunt to stay here, the relationship between us will be closer.”--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

“We have dozens of room in the southeast corner of the Pear Fragrance court that is vacant, and ask someone to invite the aunt and sister and brother to live here.” Lady King originally wanted to stay. Grandma Merchant also sent someone to say: “Please stay here, the relationship between us will be closer.”--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 07:56, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081555==

薛姨妈正欲同居一处，方可拘紧些儿子；若另住在外边，又恐他纵性惹祸：遂忙应允。又私与王夫人说明：“一应日费供给，一概都免，方是处常之法。”

Aunt Marshgrass wanted to live here so that she could supervise her son. If she lived elsewhere, she feared that her son would get into trouble again. Therefore, she agreed immediately and said to Lady King privately, "the Xue family will pay for all the supplies by themselves, which is the only way to get along with them for a long time."

Aunt Marshgrass wanted to live here so that she could supervise her son. If she lived elsewhere, she feared that her son would get into trouble again. Therefore, she agreed immediately and explicated to Lady King privately, "the Marshgrass family will pay for all the supplies by themselves, which is the only way to get along with them for a long time."--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 07:52, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学女 202120081556==

王夫人知他家不难于此，遂亦从其自便。从此后，薛家母女就在梨香院住了。原来这梨香院乃当日荣公暮年养静之所，小小巧巧，约有十馀间房舍，前厅后舍俱全。

Lady King knew that it was not difficult to solve this problem, so she agreed to come down. From then on, the mother and daughter of the Marshgrass family lived in the Pear Fragrant Court. It turned out that the pear Hyangwon used to be the residence of King Yeongguk when he retired. It was small, but there were about a dozen houses with a complete front hall and back yard.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 07:49, 29 December 2021 (UTC)
Lady King knew that it was not difficult to solve this problem, thus agreeing to come down. From then on, the mother and daughter of the Marshgrass family lived in the Pear Fragrant Court. It turned out that the pear Hyangwon used to be the residence of King Yeongguk when he retired. It was delicate , but there were about a dozen houses with a complete front hall and back yard.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 11:30, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081557==

另有一门通街，薛蟠的家人就走此门出入。西南上又有一个角门，通着夹道子，出了夹道，便是王夫人正房的东院了。每日或饭后或晚间，薛姨妈便过来，或与贾母闲谈，或与王夫人相叙；

There was another gate to the street, through which Dragon Marshgrass's family went in and out. There is another side gate in the southwest, which leads to the narrow lane. Out of it, comes the east courtyard of Lady King's principal room. Every day, after dinner or in the evening, Aunt Marshgrass came to chat with Grandma Merchant or Lady King;--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 12:49, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

There was another door leading to the street, and Dragon Marshgrass's family walked in and out through this door. There is another corner door on the southwest, leading through the lane, and out of the lane, it is the east courtyard of Lady King's main house. Every day, after dinner or in the evening, Aunt Marshgrass came over, chatting with Grandma Merchant, or narrating with Lady King.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 07:23, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学女 202120081558==

宝钗日与黛玉、迎春姊妹等一处，或看书下棋，或做针黹：倒也十分相安。只是薛蟠起初原不欲在贾府中居住，生恐姨父管束，不得自在。无奈母亲执意在此，且贾宅中又十分殷勤苦留，只得暂且住下；

During the day, Precious Hairpin Marshgrass was in peace with Mascara Jade Forest and her sister Pring Pleasure Merchant, reading a book, playing chess, or doing stitches. It's just that Dragon Marshgrass didn't want to live in Jia's house at first, and was afraid of his uncle's control and uncomfortable. But my mother insisted on staying here, and the people in Jia's house were so diligent to stay, so they had to stay temporarily.

During the day, Precious Hairpin Marshgrass was in peace with with Mascara Jade Forest, Spring Pleasure Merchant, her sisters and the other girls, either to read, to play chess, or to do needlework. It's just that Dragon Marshgrass didn't want to live in Jia's house at first, and was afraid of his uncle's control and uncomfortable. But my mother insisted on staying here, and the people in Jia's house were so diligent to stay, so they had to stay temporarily.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 07:19, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学女 202120081559==

一面使人打扫出自家的房屋，再移居过去。谁知自此间住了不上一月，贾宅族中凡有的子侄，俱已认熟了一半，都是那些纨袴气习，莫不喜与他来往。

at the same time he directed servants to go and sweep the apartments of their own house and they should move into them when they were ready.
But, contrary to expectation， for not over a month，Dragon Marshgrass to be on intimate relations with all the young men among the kindred of the Jia mansion， the half of whom were extravagant in their habits and glad to make contact with he.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 06:44, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

At the same time，he arranged servants to clean their own house apartments and then moved to the apartment for living.However,less than a month's living，he has been acquainted with hallf of the sons and nephews in the clan of Chia. They were extravagant in their habits and glad to make friends with him.--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 13:46, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081561==

今日会酒，明日观花，甚至聚赌嫖娼，无所不至，引诱的薛蟠比当日更坏了十倍。虽说贾政训子有方，治家有法，一则族大人多，照管不到；二则现在房长乃是贾珍，彼乃宁府长孙，又现袭职，凡族中事，都是他掌管；
Staying together and drinking wine today, appreciating flowers tomorrow, and even gambling and prostitution, everything will be done. Xue Pan, who is seduced, is ten times worse than that day. Although Jia Zhengxun is good at governing family, on the one hand,there are so many people in the family that he can not look after everyone; On the other hand, the house chief is Jia Zhen, and he is the eldest grandson of the Ning Mansion, now everything is in charge of him.

Today having party and drinking, tomorrow watching flower, and even gambling and whoring are all around. Dragon Marshgrass is ten times worse than that day. Although Master Merchant correctly taught his children,Run the family with laws and regulations,For one thing, there are too many people to take care of; Second, now the head of the house is Treasure Merchant, the grandson of the head of ,He was in charge of the Ning Mansion， all the affairs of the family，he is in charge of everything in the family;--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 03:34, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学女 202120081562==

三则公私冗杂，且素性潇洒，不以俗事为要，每公暇之时，不过看书、着棋而已；况这梨香院相隔两层房舍，又有街门别开，任意可以出入：

Third, the public and private are miscellaneous, and they are natural and unrestrained. They don't focus on mundane affairs. In their spare time, they just read books and play chess; Moreover, the Pear Fragrance Court is separated by two floors, and the street door is not open, so you can go in and out at will:
--[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 18:20, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==Nadia 202011080004==

这些子弟们所以只管放意畅怀的，因此薛蟠遂将移居之念渐渐打灭了。

==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==

日后如何，下回分解。葫芦僧判断葫芦案──
What will happen eventually? The monk in the ground temple will abuse the law.

==Mariam Toure 2020GBJ002301==

“葫芦”的谐音为糊涂，故其意谓糊涂僧糊涂判案。

==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==

指知县贾雨村按照现为衙门门子而原为葫芦庙小沙弥的主意糊里糊涂判结了薛蟠强买甄英莲并打死人命一案。

Zhizhi County Jia Yucun was confused and convicted the case of Xue Panqiang buying Zhen Yinglian and killing people based on the idea that he is now Yamenzi but was originally a young novice monk in the Gourd Temple.

==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==

女子无才便是德──语出明·张岱《公祭祁夫人文》：

==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==

“(陈)眉公曰：‘丈夫有德便是才，女子无才便是德。’此语殊为未确。”

==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==

(又见清·石成金《家训钞》引)
Translation: (See also the quote from Shi Chengjin's "Family Instructions")

==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==

意谓女子如果读书识字，便可能受到小说、戏曲的不良影响，做出伤风败俗的事，倒不如不识字而能保持妇德。

==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==

《女四书》、《列女传》──都是记述历代贤德女子的事迹，以宣扬封建妇德的书。
English:The Four Books on Women and the Biography of Lienu ─ ─ both describe the deeds of

virtuous women in past dynasties to publicize the feudal virtues of women.

==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==

《女四书》：明·王相模仿南宋·朱熹所编《四书》而辑成，包括东汉·班昭的《女诫》、唐·宋若莘和宋若昭的《女论语》、明·永乐皇后徐氏的《内训》、王相之母刘氏的《女范捷录》四种专讲女德的书，故称。

==Öncü 202121080008==

《列女传》：西汉·刘向编撰。全书七卷，每卷为一类，分别为母仪、贤明、仁智、贞顺、节义、辩通、嬖孽，共收妇女故事一百零四则。

"Biographies of Exemplary Women": compiled by the western Han dynasty Liu Xiang. There are seven volumes in the whole book, each of which is a category. respectively, there are one hundred and four women's stories, including Mu Yi, Xian Ming, Ren Zhi, Zhen Shun, Jie Yi, Bian Tong, and Bi Nie.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 06:33, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==

纺绩女红(gōng工)──泛指女子应做的家务活计。

Spinning needlework ——— Make a general reference of as housework that a woman should do.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 05:25, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

Fangji Female Red (''gong'')──refers to the household chores of women.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 19:13, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==

纺绩：“纺”是把丝纺成纱，“绩”是把麻绩成线。

''Fangji'': "Fang" means to spin silk into yarn, "Ji" means to turn the hemp into thread.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 19:06, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

''Fangji'': ''Fang'' means spinning silk into yarn, ''Ji'' means turning hemp into thread. --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 01:48, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==Asep Budiman 202111080020==

女红：又作“女工”或“女功”。

Female Red (''gong''): is also known as "female worker" or "female performer". --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 01:46, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

Female Red: also known as "female worker" or "female performer". --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 10:56, 29 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw

==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==

是指纺织、缝纫、刺绣等。

Refers to textiles, sewing, embroidery, etc. --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 10:53, 29 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw

which refers to textiles, sewing, embroidery, etc.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 08:27, 30 December 2021 (UTC)

Hist Trans Theo EN 4

2021-12-29T08:45:38Z

Zeng Junlin: /* Period of Pre-Modern translation theory */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...

[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]
=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
===西方翻译理论发展概述===
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''

=== Abstract ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Key Words ===

Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period

=== 摘要 ===

西方译论大致可以分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。

===关键词 ===

西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期

===Introduction===

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of classical translation theory ===

This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.

This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of ancient translation theory ===

The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.

The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the worship and pursuit of "the well-sounded personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon. Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe, a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)

The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.

The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe, a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of Wyclif and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)

This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--Corrected by[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Modern translation theory ===

The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.

The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===

To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.

From what has been discussed above, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.

First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people". Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:41, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Conclusion ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:42, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.

H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.

L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.

Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.

William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.

Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Hist Trans Theo EN 4

2021-12-29T08:38:10Z

Zeng Junlin: /* Period of ancient translation theory */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...

[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]
=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
===西方翻译理论发展概述===
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''

=== Abstract ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Key Words ===

Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period

=== 摘要 ===

西方译论大致可以分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。

===关键词 ===

西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期

===Introduction===

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of classical translation theory ===

This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.

This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of ancient translation theory ===

The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.

The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the worship and pursuit of "the well-sounded personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon. Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe, a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)

The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.

The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe, a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)

This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--Corrected by[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Modern translation theory ===

The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.

The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===

To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.

From what has been discussed above, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.

First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people". Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:41, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Conclusion ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:42, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.

H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.

L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.

Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.

William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.

Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Hist Trans Theo EN 4

2021-12-29T08:31:44Z

Zeng Junlin: /* Characteristics of the development of western translation theory */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...

[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]
=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
===西方翻译理论发展概述===
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''

=== Abstract ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Key Words ===

Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period

=== 摘要 ===

西方译论大致可以分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。

===关键词 ===

西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期

===Introduction===

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of classical translation theory ===

This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.

This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of ancient translation theory ===

The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.

The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon. Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe, a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)

The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.

The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe, a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)

This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--Corrected by[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Modern translation theory ===

The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.

The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===

To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.

From what has been discussed above, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.

First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people". Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:41, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Conclusion ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:42, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.

H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.

L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.

Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.

William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.

Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Hist Trans Theo EN 4

2021-12-29T08:30:36Z

Zeng Junlin: /* Period of Modern translation theory */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...

[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]
=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
===西方翻译理论发展概述===
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''

=== Abstract ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Key Words ===

Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period

=== 摘要 ===

西方译论大致可以分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。

===关键词 ===

西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期

===Introduction===

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of classical translation theory ===

This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.

This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of ancient translation theory ===

The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.

The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon. Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe, a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)

The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.

The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe, a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)

This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--Corrected by[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Modern translation theory ===

The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.

The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===

To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.

From what has been discussed above, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.

First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:41, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Conclusion ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:42, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

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Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.

H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.

L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.

Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.

William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.

Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Hist Trans Theo EN 4

2021-12-29T08:24:41Z

Zeng Junlin: /* Period of ancient translation theory */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

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=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
===西方翻译理论发展概述===
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''

=== Abstract ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Key Words ===

Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period

=== 摘要 ===

西方译论大致可以分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。

===关键词 ===

西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期

===Introduction===

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of classical translation theory ===

This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.

This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of ancient translation theory ===

The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.

The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon. Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe, a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)

The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.

The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe, a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)

This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--Corrected by[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Modern translation theory ===

The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.

The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===

To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.

From what has been discussed above, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.

First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:41, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Conclusion ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:42, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.

H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.

L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.

Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.

William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.

Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Hist Trans Theo EN 4

2021-12-29T08:23:35Z

Zeng Junlin: /* Period of ancient translation theory */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

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=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
===西方翻译理论发展概述===
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''

=== Abstract ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Key Words ===

Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period

=== 摘要 ===

西方译论大致可以分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。

===关键词 ===

西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期

===Introduction===

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of classical translation theory ===

This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.

This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of ancient translation theory ===

The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.
At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)
All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon. Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)
It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)
The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I. The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.
At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)
All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)
It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe, a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)

This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--Corrected by[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Modern translation theory ===

The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.

The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===

To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.

From what has been discussed above, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.

First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:41, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Conclusion ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:42, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.

H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.

L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.

Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.

William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.

Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Hist Trans Theo EN 4

2021-12-29T08:19:50Z

Zeng Junlin: /* Period of classical translation theory */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]
=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
===西方翻译理论发展概述===
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''

=== Abstract ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Key Words ===

Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period

=== 摘要 ===

西方译论大致可以分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。

===关键词 ===

西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期

===Introduction===

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of classical translation theory ===

This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.

This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas, the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of ancient translation theory ===

The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)

The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)

This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--Corrected by[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Modern translation theory ===

The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.

The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===

To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.

From what has been discussed above, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.

First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:41, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Conclusion ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:42, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.

H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.

L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.

Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.

William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.

Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Hist Trans Theo EN 4

2021-12-29T08:16:27Z

Zeng Junlin: /* Introduction */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]
=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
===西方翻译理论发展概述===
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''

=== Abstract ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Key Words ===

Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period

=== 摘要 ===

西方译论大致可以分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。

===关键词 ===

西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期

===Introduction===

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of classical translation theory ===

This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.

This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of ancient translation theory ===

The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)

The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)

This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--Corrected by[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Modern translation theory ===

The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.

The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===

To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.

From what has been discussed above, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.

First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:41, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Conclusion ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:42, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.

H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.

L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.

Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.

William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.

Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.

Hist Trans Theo EN 4

2021-12-29T08:12:23Z

Zeng Junlin: /* 摘要 */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|Overview Page of History of Translation Theories]]

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[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]
=Chapter 4 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
===西方翻译理论发展概述===
'''Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China'''

=== Abstract ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:32, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Key Words ===

Western translation theory，classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period，modern translation theory period

=== 摘要 ===

西方译论大致可以分为古典译论期、古代译论期、近代译论期、现代译论期四个时期。古典译论期的主要译论家是西塞罗、霍拉斯和杰罗姆，他们代表了西方译论长达2000年发展史的源头。古代译论期的译论伴随文艺复兴和宗教改革，以文艺翻译和宗教翻译为特征。前现代期在文化上影响译论的最重要的现象是启蒙中古代语文学和诠释学派的发展。当代西方译论进入了一个综合利用语言学各学科、后现代文论、符号学、修辞学、语言哲学、逻辑学、美学等社会科学以及信息理论、计算机科学等翻译理论综合开发期。西方翻译发轫于古罗马对希腊文明的渴求，即所谓爱琴海文明的西进。西方译论的立论依据比较广，译论范围也比较宽，但始终围绕语言学展开。

===关键词 ===

西方译论，古典译论期，古代译论期，近代译论期，现代译论期

===Introduction===

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.

From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.

However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural background and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.

We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period.

George Steiner divides Western translation theory into the following four periods in his famous book After Babel: The first period is from Cicero and Horace to Taitler, and the later book Essay on the Principles of Translation is published ( 1791) as a symbol; the second period is from the end of the 19th century to the 1940s, with Valery as a representative; the third period is marked by the advent and development of machine translation technology and theory in the 1940s; the fourth period Generally parallel to the third period, it is marked by hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries (hermeneutic and metaphysical inquiries). Steiner's periodization has been criticized by Western translation theory circles.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of classical translation theory ===

This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.

This is the origin period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".

Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason".Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory. （Susan Bassnett-Mcquire,1980,43–44）

The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.Correted by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:54, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of ancient translation theory ===

The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)

The second period of western translation theory - the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.

At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Livy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). Someone described the grand translation of the time and said: "The entire city of Rome became a translation factory, specializing in the production of translations from Greek to Latin". In fact, the grand translation at the time was far more than just in Rome, and not only between Greek and Latin. Florence is not inferior to Rome. From the 14th to the 16th century, the city of Buddhism was the center of Italian literature and art. The grand translation of Europe at the time was very much in line with Bruno's (Giordano Bruno, c1548–1600) prediction. He said: "All science can only bear fruit with the help of translation." (Steiner,1975, 259)

All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". (L. G. Kelly,1979, 9)

It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. Following Roger Bacon, many people in Europe have successively raised challenges to translation, pointing out that there were three major criticisms of translation at that time: one was to know what it said but not what it meant; the other was to know what it meant but not what it meant. ; The third is that they are both ignorant and ignorant. Although this attack is mainly aimed at the translation of the Bible, it is actually very common. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.(L. G. Kelly,1979, 10)Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory ===
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)

This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. In fact, historical comparative linguistics is the result of the development and exploration of the first two. Ancient Chinese literature originated in Italy in the 15th century, and its development was also promoted by many factors such as the Renaissance, the spread of Christianity, and the expansion of colonialism that stimulated language contact. The heyday representatives of historical comparative linguistics are the Danish linguist Rask (R. C. Rask, 1787–1832) and the German linguist Bopp (F. Bopp, 1791–1867). Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.(V. Thomsen,1960,43）

Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation. Johann W. von Goethe (Johann W. von Goethe) is known as "the last embodiment of the Renaissance ideal", and his basic translation theory advocates "the perfect identity between the SL and the TL" . To this end, the translator must have ingenuity and creativity, and adopt a unique way of expression. This is the best translation, and the next thing is imitation and prose.

Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time." Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" . There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.(H. G. Gadamer,1977, xiii)--Corrected by[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:03, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Period of Modern translation theory ===

The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.

The fourth period is The contemporary Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) is the founder of modern linguistics and a pioneer of structural linguistics. His main contribution is to point out the arbitrariness of linguistic signs and the linearity of the signifier; language has internal and external distinctions, diachronic and synchronic distinctions. The value of language signs is constantly evolving, so a descriptive attitude should be taken to language instead of It is prescribed. Saussure's scientific linguistics has a profound influence on western modern linguistics and translation theories.

The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.

In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Jacobson believes that poetry is "untranslatable" strictly speaking, because poetry is subject to the constraints of the arrangement relationship between phonemes and sememes, that is, units of meaning. To get rid of this constraint, translation The family can only resort to "transplantation" and it is "no less than creative transplantation of different language symbols (phonetic arrangements) created". Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 15:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Characteristics of the development of western translation theory ===

To sum up, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.

From what has been discussed above, we can deduce the development track of translation theory in the West for more than 2000 years. Its characteristics are as follows.

First, western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. "Greek civilization" covers a wide range. At that time, the translation mainly focused on Homer's epic Philosophy (focusing on the so-called "three philosophies", namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle), literature and history (focusing on drama, prose and War History) and the democratic politics of Athens. In the west, the Bible The climax of translation did not appear until the 16th century. Due to the wide variety of translation subjects, translation theories also tend to be diversified, not just on the translation standards and requirements of scriptures. At the beginning of Chinese classical translation theory, it has always focused on the review of religious translation.

Second, western translation theory has a wide basis and a wide range, but it always focuses on linguistics. The main characters of Western classical and ancient translation theories are ancient Romans, based on the philosophy of classical Greece Aesthetics (poetics and classical rhetoric, which are also collectively referred to as ancient philology). Augustine, a classical translation theorist, is a classical aesthetician. Modern translation theory is mainly based on ancient philosophy, semantics, etymology and literature and art (poetics and tragedies) and historical comparative linguistics. In the early stage of modern translation theory, great attention was paid to semantics. At the same time, influenced by Saussure's socio semiotic view of language, structuralism, especially postmodern literary theory, they began to pay attention to language structure and cultural problems. In the later stage of western modern translation theory since the 1960s, translation theory and modern linguistics gradually combined and tended to rely on linguistics From the perspective of linguistics, it is marked by the decline of Bloomfield's structuralism and the prosperity of various disciplines of Applied Linguistics; From the perspective of translation theory, it is the gradual rise of scientific translation theory. Western traditional translation theory (especially in the period of classical translation theory and ancient translation theory) is often the "sideline" of masters in literature, history and philosophy Therefore, they usually develop translation art through literary creation and aesthetics. Since the later stage of modern translation theory, the western translation industry has developed greatly, and the subject matter has gone far beyond the traditional fields such as literature, history and philosophy. The specialization of translation promotes the development of translation theory to specialization, from general linguistics, postmodern literary theory, hermeneutics, traditional rhetoric, semantics The extension of historical comparative linguistics to many branches of Modern Applied Linguistics presents a new situation of all-round development. Another important reason for the early shift of western translation theory from aesthetics to linguistics is that the kinship of western languages makes it easier to realize homologous correspondence in word form and syntactic form This is exactly the purpose of historical comparative linguistics since the end of the 18th century. Translation theory and historical comparative linguistics can be described as "corresponding with one voice and seeking the same spirit". Of course, this is mainly on the side of translation theory.

Western languages generally belong to Indo European languages. Indo European languages are divided into eastern Indo European languages (mainly Baltic Slavic language group) and Western Indo European languages (mainly Germanic, Latin, Celtic and ancient Greek). As far as translation is concerned, since the source language and the target language belong to the same language family or even the same language family and language branch, and the language origins are the same or similar, translation theory has long paid attention to etymology, historical morphology and semantics, and since the 1950s and 1960s, it has paid great attention to modern linguistics The development of various disciplines, especially the transformational generative school, is one of the outstanding characteristics of western translation theory.

Third, traditionally, especially compared with Chinese traditional aesthetics, western aesthetics does not pay attention to language aesthetics, The rhetorical aesthetic propositions in Chinese aesthetic thought (wishful thinking and image, spirit and form, literature and quality, emptiness and reality, elegance and vulgarity, artistic conception theory, style theory, composition theory, rhetoric theory, etc.) are all absent in western aesthetics. This is largely due to the fact that western language is not a very perceptual language and emphasizes "grammatical logic" , which is quite different from Chinese. Western aesthetics has always paid attention to the essence of beauty and discussed the beauty of literature and art only as the expression of the essence of beauty. The early western aesthetic thought originated from the Pythagoras School (c580 – c500bc) and flourished in Plato and Aristotle. Ancient Greek and Roman Aesthetics focused on the "essence of beauty". At first, aesthetics was regarded as an integral part of philosophy. Until sugraty began to pay attention to the humanism of beauty and put forward that the standard of beauty lies in "utility to people" 。 Later western aesthetics was deeply influenced by classical aesthetics, and discussed the essence, emergence and expression of beauty. Western medieval aesthetics has a strong theological color. It holds that "the beauty of perceptual things is limited and the beauty of God is infinite". The former is intuitive and non purposeful, while the latter is "the highest beauty" and "the beauty of divinity". The scholastic philosophy aesthetics in the late Middle Ages, represented by the famous philosopher Thomas Aquinas, put forward "three factors of beauty", namely "integrity", "harmony" and "distinctiveness" Claritas basically doesn't talk about language aesthetics. Modern western aesthetics still focuses on the nature and form of beauty, which is deeply influenced by Aquinas. In the 18th century, the British Scholastics aesthetics believed that "beauty is a psychological activity produced by the form of objective foreign objects in line with people's subjective psychological structure". Kant (I. Kant, 1724 – 1804) under the influence of scholastic philosophy aesthetics, he combined the "psychological structure theory" with the "subjective talent theory" of German rationalists to launch the subjectivist "state of mind theory". After the mid-19th century, western modern aesthetics inherited Kant's influence, mostly from human subjectivity From the perspective of subjectivity, this paper discusses the essence of beauty and focuses on the attribute of beauty. The speculative color is very strong, which is basically "metaphysical", and language is the communication tool of "metaphysical". Since the 19th century, the general trend of western aesthetics has been to separate from the philosophical system and develop in the direction of specialization, diversification and multidisciplinary, from the speculative deduction of "top-down" to "top-down" Although the empirical evidence of "bottom-up" still adheres to the discussion of the definition and essential attributes of beauty, the aesthetic subject has gradually expanded to the broader field of the relationship between aesthetic subject and objective, and the methodology has shifted from simple induction or deduction to scientific experimental verification. Scientific empiricism and traditional humanistic aesthetics are the mainstream of Western Aesthetics in the 20th century.(Kant,1972, 103)

The separation of Western Aesthetics from philosophy coincides with the rise of historical comparative philology. This major historical development and change is to promote the transformation of western translation theory from aesthetics to literature (including modern and postmodern literary theory) and linguistics, which is also a remarkable feature of the development track of western translation theory different from Chinese translation theory. It is no accident that western translation theory is separated from aesthetics and appeals to linguistics.corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:41, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== Conclusion ===

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.

Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and contemporary translation theory period. The main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who represent the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. Translation theory in the period of ancient translation theory, accompanied by the Renaissance and religious reform, is characterized by literary translation and religious translation. The most important cultural phenomenon affecting translation theory in the pre-modern period is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. It can be said that contemporary western translation theory has entered a period of comprehensive development of social sciences such as linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, language philosophy, logic and aesthetics, as well as translation theories such as information theory and computer science. Western translation originated from ancient Rome's desire for Greek civilization, that is, the so-called westward advance of Aegean civilization. The basis of western translation theory is relatively broad, and the scope of translation theory is relatively wide, but it always focuses on linguistics.Corrected by--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 03:42, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

=== References ===

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；高名凯译. 普通语言学教程Course in General Linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press., 2017.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；张绍杰导读. 语言学入门 Introduction to Linguistics. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press, 2001.10.

Ferdinand De Saussure索绪尔著；于秀英译. 普通语言学导论general linguistics. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press, 2020.

H. G. Gadamer，Philosophical Hermeneutics, UC Press, Berkeley, 1977.

L. G. Kelly，The True Interpreter: A History of Translation Theory and Practice in West, Oxford, 1979.

Susan Bassnett-Mcquire，Translation Studies, Methuen, London& New York, 1980.

Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M] A brief history of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆 Beijing:The Commercial Press.

William Thomson威廉·汤姆逊，黄振华译. 十九世纪末以前的语言学史The history of linguistics before the end of the 19th century . 北京/西安：世界图书出版公司Beijing / Xi'an: World Book Publishing Company, 2009.

Xie Tianzheng 谢天振．中西翻译简史［M］A brief history of Chinese and Western Translation．北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: foreign language teaching and Research Press.

20211229 homework

2021-12-29T08:00:09Z

Zeng Junlin: /* 曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478 */

Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]]

PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211013_homework|for Oct 13 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] [[20211020_homework|for Oct 20 - HLM Chapters 21-22]] [[20211027_homework|for Oct 27 - HLM Chapters 23-24]] etc.

==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别女 202020080595==

心较比干多一窍──比干：暴君商(殷)纣王之叔，被誉为圣人。据《史记·殷本纪》载：纣王厌恶比干谏诤不已，怒曰：“吾闻圣人心有七窍。”于是“剖比干，观其心”。

The heart is one more hole than Bigan. Bigan, the uncle of tyrant Shang King Zhou, is known as a saint. According to Historical Records: Yin Dynasty, King Zhou dislikes the advisement of Bigan, so said with anger,"I heard that a saint has seven hole in his heart." Thus, Bigan was anatomized to observe his heart.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

The heart is one more hole than Bigan. Bigan: uncle of King Zhou of the tyrant Shang (Yin), known as a saint. According to the historical records of Yin Benji, King Zhou hated Bigan's admonition and said angrily, "I heard that the heart of Bigan.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 07:15, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 法语语言文学女 202120081477==

古人以为心窍越多越聪明，故以“心较比干多一窍” 形容黛玉绝顶聪明。

病如西子胜三分──西子：即西施。《庄子·天运》说：“西施病心而颦(皱眉)”，益增娇艳。

The ancients thought that the more the mind, the smarter it was, so they described Lin Daiyu Tochter von Lin Ji-hai as extremely clever. Illness like Xi Zi wins three points - Xi Zi: Xi Shi. Zhuangzi Tianyun said: "Xi Shi frowns (frowns) when she is ill", which increases her beauty.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 07:25, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

The ancients thought that the more the mind, the smarter it was, so they described Daiyu as extremely clever.
Illness like Xi Zi wins three points - Xi Zi: Xi Shi. Zhuangzi Tianyun said: "Xi Shi frowns (frowns) when she is ill", which increases her beauty.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478==

故以“病如西子胜三分”形容黛玉病弱而娇美。胜：胜过，超过。下面贾宝玉替林黛玉起表字为“颦颦”，亦用西施颦眉之典，但又不敢明说，故编了一套谎活，杜撰了《古今人物通考》书名。
Therefore, Mascara Jade Forest is described as weak and beautiful by "sick as Xizi wins three points". Next, Precious Jade Merchant wrote "Pingping" for Mascara Jade Forest. He also used the code of Xi shi’s frown, but he didn't dare to say it clearly, so he made up a set of lies and invented the title of the general examination of ancient and modern characters. --[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 12:00, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081479==

教引嬷嬷──清代专司教导年幼皇子的女子，称“谙达”。后来世家大族也仿效而行。

“花气袭人”之句：是宋·陆游《村居书喜》中的半句，原诗为七言律诗：

Jiao Yin Mammy -- a woman who was in charge of teaching the young emperor's son in the Qing Dynasty, known as "Jiuda". Later, the big families followed the suit.
The sentence "flower spirit attacks people" is half of a sentence in "Village Residence Book Xi" by Song · Lu You. The original poem is a seven-word poem: --[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 06:05, 27 December 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

Guide Mammy——a woman who in charge of teaching young sons of Emperor in the Qing Dynasty，called “Anda”. Later, the big families followed the suit.

The sentence "flower spirit attacks people" is half of a sentence in "Book of Happiness Living in Village" by Lu You in Song Dynasty.The original poem is a seven-word poem：--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 01:43, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081480==

“红桥梅市晓山横，白塔樊江春水生。花气袭人知骤暖，鹊声穿树喜新晴。坊场酒贱贫犹醉，原野泥深老亦耕。”

Mountains stand away from the Hong Qiaomei market and the Fanjiang river flows beside the Bai Tower. The glamour of flowers notices the spring and Tweetie magpies are happy because of a sunny day. The price of unstrained wine is so low that poor me can have a good drink. Farmers are diligently ploughing and sowing. --[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 01:37, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学女 202120081481==

最喜先期官赋足，经年无吏叩柴荆。”意谓因闻到花香，才知天气已经骤然暖和了。第二十三回和二十八回均引作“花气袭人知昼暖”，将“骤”误为“昼”，可能是曹雪芹误记。

==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081482==

省(xǐ ng醒)——典出《礼记·曲礼上》：“凡为人子之礼，冬温而夏凊，昏定而晨省。”[凊( jìng净)：凉。]

Xing (pronounced xǐng) – canonical originated from ''The Book of Rites • Qu Li'': "The etiquette of being sons is: make his parents feel warm in winter, cool in the summer, serve them to bed at night, and greet them in the morning. [Jing (pronounced jìng)]--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 11:27, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081483==

意谓子女冬天要为父母焐暖被褥，夏天要为父母扇凉床席，每天早上要向父母请安问好，晚上要服侍父母安寝。泛指子女对父母的孝敬无微不至。故“省”即“晨省”的略称。

==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnuó 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081484==

指子女早晨向父母请安问候的礼节。

第四回薄命女偏逢薄命郎，葫芦僧判断葫芦案

It refers to the politeness children greet their parents in the morning.

The Fourth Encountering of Unfortunate Couples;Fool Judge and the Misjudge Case--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 13:27, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081485==

却说黛玉同姐妹们至王夫人处，见王夫人正和兄嫂处的来使计议家务，又说姨母家遭人命官司等语。因见王夫人事情冗杂，姐妹们遂出来 ,至寡嫂李氏房中来了。原来这李氏即贾珠之妻。

==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学女 202120081486==

珠虽夭亡，幸存一子，取名贾兰，今方五岁，已入学攻书。这李氏亦系金陵名宦之女。父名李守中，曾为国子祭酒；族中男女无不读诗书者。

Although Bead Merchant had died at an early age, he had the good fortune of leaving behind him a son, to whom the name of Cymbidium Merchant was given. He was, at this period, just in his fifth year, and had already entered school, and applied himself to books. This Silk Plum was also the daughter of an official of note in Gold Mausoleum. Her father's name was Midfielder Plum, who had, at one time, been Imperial Libationer. Among his kindred, men as well as women had all devoted themselves to poetry and letters. --[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 07:24, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

Bead Merchant died young. But luckily, she had a son, Cymbidium Merchant, just five and already in school. Her father, Midfielder Plum, a notable of Jinling, had served as a Libationer in the Imperial College. All the sons and daughters of his clan had been devoted to the study of the classics. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 10:06, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学女 202120081487==

至李守中继续以来，便谓“女子无才便是德”，故生了此女，不曾叫他十分认真读书，只不过将些《女四书》、《烈女传》读读，认得几个字，记得前朝这几个贤女便了；

When Midfielder Plum became head of the family, however, in the belief that “an unaccomplished woman is a virtuous one,” instead of making his daughter study hard he simply had her taught enough to read a few books such as the ''Four Books for Girls'', ''Biographies of Martyred Women'', and ''Lives of Exemplary Ladies'' so that she might be able to recognize a few characters and be familiar with some of the models of female virtue of former ages; --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 10:05, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学女 202120081488==

却以纺绩女红为要，因取名为李纨，字宫裁。所以这李纨虽青春丧偶，且居处于膏粱锦绣之中，竟如槁木死灰一般，一概不问不闻，惟知侍亲养子，闲时陪侍小姑等针黹、诵读而已。

She was named Silk Plum and her courtesy name was Gongcai (imperial tailor) because she was hoped to be good at embroidery. Young but widowed, she looked like a dried-up wood, though living in a rich family. She did't ask any questions or wonder anything, but to serve her parents and raise her son, and in her spare time, she read and embroidered with her sisters-in-law.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 03:55, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学女 202120081489==

今黛玉虽客居于此，已有这几个姑嫂相伴，除老父之外，馀者也就无用虑了。如今且说贾雨村授了应天府，一到任，就有件人命官司详至案下，却是两家争买一婢，各不相让，以致殴伤人命。彼时雨村即拘原告来审。

==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081490==

那原告道：“被打死的乃是小人的主人。因那日买了个丫头，不想系拐子拐来卖的。这拐子先已得了我家的银子，我家小主人原说第二日方是好日，再接入门；

==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491==

这拐子又悄悄的卖与了薛家，被我们知道了，去找拿卖主，夺取丫头。无奈薛家原系金陵一霸，倚财仗势，众豪奴将我小主人竟打死了。凶身主仆已皆逃走，无有踪迹，只剩了几个局外的人。

But this kidnapper stealthily sold her over again to the Hsueeh family. When we came to know of this, we went in search of the seller to lay hold of him, and bring back the girl by force. But the Hsueeh party has been all along the bully of Chin Ling, full of confidence in his wealth and prestige; and his arrogant menials in a body seized our master and beat him to death.The murderous master and his crew have all long ago made good their escape, leaving no trace behind them, while there only remain several parties not concerned in the affair. --[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 13:37, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

But this kidnapper stealthily sold her to the Hsueeh family. When we knew of this, we went in search of the seller to lay hold of him, and brought back the girl by force. But the Hsueeh party has been all along the bully of Chin Ling, full of confidence in his asset and prestige; and his arrogant menials in a body seized our master and beat him to death.The murderous master and his crew have all long ago made good their escape, leaving no trace behind them, while there only remain several people not concerned in the affair. --[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 06:29, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492==

小人告了一年的状，竟无人作主。求太老爷拘拿凶犯，以扶善良，存殁感激天恩不尽！”雨村听了，大怒道：“那有这等事：打死人竟白白的走了，拿不来的？”

I filed a charge a year ago, but there's no answer. I beg Your Honour to arrest the criminals, punish the evil-doers and help the widow and orphan. Then both the living and the dead will be grateful!" "This is a scandal!" fumed Rainvillage Merchant. "How can men commit a murder and go without punishment?"--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 06:22, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别男 202120081493==

便发签差公人，立刻将凶犯家属拿来拷问。只见案旁站着一个门子，使眼色不叫他发签。雨村心下狐疑，只得停了手。He sent a signature to send the official and immediately tortured the family members of the murderer. Seeing a boy page of the court standing by the case, who didn't ask Yucun to sign. Yucun was suspicious and had to stop.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 01:45, 26 December 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

He sent a signature to send the official and immediately tortured the family members of the murderer. Seeing a boy page of the court standing by the case, who didn't ask Yucun to sign. Yucun was suspicious and had to stop to do it.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==

退堂至密室，令从人退去，只留这门子一人伏侍。门子忙上前请安，笑问：“老爷一向加官进禄，八九年来，就忘了我了？”
He retreated to the secret room and ordered everyone to leave the door man alone. The door man is busy forward to ask for his respect, smile to ask: "the master has been adding officials into the salary, eight or nine years, forget me?"--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 11:20, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

He retreated to the secret room and ordered everyone to leave except for the door man Menzi. Menzi is busy forward to ask for his respect, smile to ask: "the master has been adding officials into the salary, eight or nine years, forget me?"--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 01:27, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081495==

雨村道：“我看你十分眼熟，但一时总想不起来。”门子笑道：“老爷怎么把出身之地竟忘了？老爷不记得当年葫芦庙里的事么？”雨村大惊，方想起往事。

Yucun said, “You look so familiar, but I can’t remember you at once.” Menzi laughed, “How could you forget your birthplace, my Master? Do you forget what happened in the Gourd Temple?” After listening, Yucun felt surprised, and the remembered the past.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 01:22, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

Yue-ts'un said, “You look so familiar, but I can’t remember you at once.” gatekeeper laughed, “How could you forget your birthplace, my Master? Do you forget what happened in the Gourd Temple?” After listening, Yue-ts'un felt surprised, and the remembered the past.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 05:51, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081496==

原来这门子本是葫芦庙里一个小沙弥，因被火之后无处安身，想这件生意倒还轻省，耐不得寺院凄凉，遂趁年纪轻，蓄了发，充当门子。雨村那里想得是他。

It turned out that the gatekeeper was originally a little monk in Bottle-gourd Temple. Because he had no place to settle down after the temple being burned by the fire, he thought this business was easy and could not bear the desolation of the temple. So he saved his hair and acted as a gatekeeper while he was young. Yue-ts'un didn't think it was him.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 07:10, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

The fact is that this Retainer had been a young monk in the Hu Lu temple, but because of its destruction by fire, he had no place to rest his frame, he remembered how light and easy was, after all, this kind of occupation, and being unable to reconcile himself to the solitude and quiet of a temple, he accordingly availed himself of his years, which were as yet few, to let his hair grow, and become a retainer. Yue-ts'un had had no idea that it was him. --[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 11:03, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081497==

便忙携手笑道：“原来还是故人。”因赏他坐了说话。这门子不敢坐。雨村笑道：“你也算贫贱之交了。此系私室，但坐不妨。”门子才斜签着坐下。

Hastily taking his hand, he smilingly said, "You are, indeed, an old acquaintance!" and then pressed him to take a seat, so as to have a chat with more ease, but the Retainer would not presume to sit down. "Friendships," Yue-ts'un remarked, putting on a smiling expression, "contracted in poor circumstances should not be forgotten! This is a private room, so that if you sat down, what would it matter?" The Retainer thereupon craved permission to take a seat and sat down gingerly.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 11:04, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081498==

雨村道：“方才何故不令发签？”门子道：“老爷荣任到此，难道就没抄一张本省的‘护官符’来不成？”雨村忙问：“何为‘护官符’？”

Chia Yu-tsun asked, "Why did you not grant me the passport just now?" The doorman answered that "Your Excellency, when you are to assume office here, haven't you hold some relations to a guard officer? " Yu-tsun was confused and thus continued, "guard officer?".--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 13:30, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

Chia Yu-tsun asked, "Why did you not grant me the warrant just now?" The doorman answered that "Your Excellency, when you are to assume office here, haven't you hold 'a protection charm' of the province? " Yu-tsun was confused and thus continued, "What's the protection charm?".--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 15:58, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学女 202120081499==

门子道：“如今凡作地方官的，都有一个私单，上面写的是本省最有权势极富贵的大乡绅名姓，各省皆然。倘若不知，一时触犯了这样的人家，不但官爵，只怕连性命也难保呢！

The doorman said: “Nowadays every magistrate has a personal list of the names of the most powerful and wealthy squires in the province. It’s the same in all the provinces. If you don’t do this, you may lose your position even your life once you offend them.”--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 14:47, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081500==

所以叫做‘护官符’。方才所说的这薛家，老爷如何惹得他！他这件官司并无难断之处，从前的官府都因碍着情分脸面，所以如此。”

“So it was called “the amulet of protection from the feudal official. The family Xue we talked just now, we can’t offend them, my lord. His lawsuit had no difficulty, however, the former official had trouble in the relationship, thus causing the situation then.”. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 09:46, 25 December 2021 (UTC)
So it's called ‘Guardian Talisman’. The Xue family just said, how did the master provoke him! There is nothing difficult about him in this lawsuit. The previous government officials were obstructed because of their affection, so it was so. "--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081501==

一面说，一面从顺袋中取出一张抄的“护官符”来，递与雨村看时，上面皆是本地大族名宦之家的俗谚口碑，云：贾不假，白玉为堂金作马。
On the one hand, while taking out a copy of the "protection charm" from the Shun bag, when it was handed it to Yucun, it was all the common sayings of the family of famous local eunuchs, saying: Jia is not fake, and Bai Yu is the gold of the house. Be a horse.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学女 202120081503==

阿房宫，三百里，住不下金陵一个史。东海缺少白玉床，龙王来请金陵王。丰年好大雪，珍珠如土金如铁。

==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学女 202120081504==

雨村尚未看完，忽闻传点，报：“王老爷来拜。”雨村忙具衣冠接迎，有顿饭工夫，方回来问这门子。门子道：“四家皆连络有亲，一损俱损，一荣俱荣。
Yucun has not finished reading, suddenly smell spread point, report: "Wang master came to visit." Yucun hurriedly arranged his clothes to meet him and had a meal before he came back to ask about it. Siemens way: "the four are connected to have relatives, a failure other destroyed, a glory other glory.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 06:45, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

Yucun has not finished reading, but suddenly heard from the messenger saying : "Wang master come to visit." Yucun hurriedly arranged his clothes to welcome him. Only after a meal did he come back to ask Menzi, who said: "the four families are closely connected, so do their honor and failure.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:12, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081505==

今告打死人之薛，就是‘丰年大雪’之薛。不单靠这三家，他的世交亲友在都在外的本也不少，老爷如今拿谁去？”雨村听说，便笑问门子道：“这样说来，却怎么了结此案？

The xue of killing people is the xue of 'heavy snow in the year of plenty'. He has not only these three families, but also many family friends and relatives who are away from home. Who are you going to take now?" Rain village heard, then smiled and asked Siemens way: "So say, but how to settle the case?--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 07:05, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506==

你大约也深知这凶犯躲的方向了？”门子笑道：“不瞒老爷说，不但这凶犯躲的方向，并这拐的人我也知道，死鬼买主也深知道，待我细说与老爷听：

==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507==

这个被打死的是一个小乡宦之子，名唤冯渊，父母俱亡，又无兄弟，守着些薄产度日。年纪十八九岁，酷爱男风，不好女色。这也是前生冤孽，可巧遇见这丫头，他便一眼看上了，立意买来作妾，设誓不近男色，也不再娶第二个了。

The man who was killed was the son of a small township official, named Feng Yuan. His parents died and had no brothers. He lived on a low income. He is eighteen or nine years old. He loves men and is not good at women. This is also an injustice in his previous life. But when he happened to meet this girl, he took a fancy to it and decided to buy it as a concubine. He swore that he would not be close to a man and would not marry a second one. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 05:38, 27 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

The man who was killed, was the son of one of the minor local gentry, named Feng Yuan. Both his parents died and he had no brother, living on his small property. With an age of eighteen or nineteen he was a confirmed queer and took no interest in women. But then, as the entanglements in a former life, he ran into this girl and fell for her and made up his mind to buy her for his concubine. He swore to have no more to do with men and to marry no other wife.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 13:41, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081508==

所以郑重其事，必得三日后方进门。谁知这拐子又偷卖与薛家，他意欲卷了两家的银子逃去；谁知又走不脱，两家拿住，打了个半死，都不肯收银，各要领人。

So he insisted on her entering the house three days later. Who could know that the kidnapper sell her on the sly to the Xues to abscond with the payment from both? However, before he could run, they nabbed him and beat him, leaving him half dead. Both refused to take back their money -- both wanted the girl.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 13:35, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

So he had to wait three days before he could enter the house. Who would have thought that this trafficker would secretly sell to the Xue family again? He tried to escape with the money from both families.However, before he could run, they nabbed him and beat him, leaving him half dead. Both refused to take back their money -- both wanted the girl.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 00:44, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学女 202120081509==

那薛公子便喝令下人动手，将冯公子打了个稀烂，抬回去三日竟死了。这薛公子原择下日子要上京的，既打了人，夺了丫头，他便没事人一般，只管带了家眷走他的路，并非为此而逃；

He then rudely ordered his subordinates to do something about it, and beat Feng up so badly that he was carried home and died within three days. The Duke of Xue had intended to go to the capital in a few days, and since he had beaten and robbed the maid, he acted as if nothing had happened, and simply took his family away, not because of this escape;--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 06:59, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081510==

这人命些些小事，自有他弟兄、奴仆在此料理。这且别说，老爷可知这被卖的丫头是谁？”雨村道：“我如何晓得？”门子冷笑道：“这人还是老爷的大恩人呢！

==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081511==

他就是葫芦庙旁住的甄老爷的女儿，小名英莲的。”雨村骇然道：“原来是他！听见他自五岁被人拐去，怎么如今才卖呢？”门子道：“这种拐子单拐幼女，养至十二三岁，带至他乡转卖。

==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081512==

当日这英莲，我们天天哄他玩耍，极相熟的，所以隔了七八年，虽模样儿出脱的齐整，然大段未改，所以认得；且他眉心中原有米粒大的一点胭脂记，从胎里带来的。

When Yinglian was a little girl, we played with her every day and were very familiar with each other. Her appearance didn’t change a lot after seven or eight years though she has grown prettier than before, so we still remembered her; besides, her eyebrows came to a little carmine point (the size of a grain of rice) in the middle, which was the birthmark.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 05:53, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081513==

偏这拐子又租了我的房子居住，那日拐子不在家，我也曾问他。他说是打怕了的，万不敢说，只说拐子是他的亲爹，因无钱还债才卖的。再四哄他，他又哭了，只说：‘我原不记得小时的事。’

The trafficker had rented my house to live in by coincidence. I had ever asked her one day when the trafficker was not at home. She said that she dared not to say anything after being attacked for a long time, and only answered that he was her father who sold her to pay off the debts. By coaxing her for several times, she cried again and said that "I don’t remember what happened when I was a child".--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

The kidnapper just happened to rent the houses from me. One day, when he was not at home, I asked her about such a thing. She told me that she was afraid to say anything after being beaten so much; she only insisted that he was her father who sold her to pay off his debts. When I tried repeatedly to coax it out of her, she burst into tears and said that 'I do not remember what happened in my childhood.'--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:29, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514==

这无可疑了。那日冯公子相见了，兑了银子，因拐子醉了，英莲自叹说：‘我今日罪孽可满了！’后又听见三日后才过门，他又转有忧愁之态。

There is not doubt that the girl who was carried off by the kidnapper is Yinglian all right. The day when Feng Yuan met her and paid down his silver, the kidnapper had got drunk. And then, Yinglian sighed, 'I am overwhelmed by my sins today!' However, her gloom started deepening again, when she heard that Feng Yuan would not be coming and picking her up for three days.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:14, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

There is not doubt that the girl who was carried off by the kidnapper is Yinglian all right. The day when Feng Yuan met her and paid down his silver, the kidnapper had got drunk. And then, Yinglian sighed, 'I am overwhelmed by my sins today!'Later, she heard that it would be three days before Mr. Feng would marry her, and again she turned sad.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 16:27, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515==

我又不忍，等拐子出去，又叫内人去解劝他：‘这冯公子必待好日期来接，可知必不以丫鬟相看。况他是个绝风流人品，家里颇过得，素性又最厌恶堂客，今竟破价买你，后事不言可知。

I could not bear it, so I waited for the kidnapper to go out, and asked my wife to go and persuade him: 'Mr. Feng must be waiting for a good date to come and take you, so I know that he would never look at you as a maid. Besides, he is a man of great elegance, and his family is well off.He has always hated parishioners, but now he has gone so far as to buy you at a price that it is easy to tell what will happen.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 16:24, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

I could not bear it, so I waited for the kidnapper to go out, and asked my wife to persuade him: “Mr. Feng must be waiting for a good date to come and take you, so I know that he would never look at you as a maid. Besides, he is a man of great elegance, and his family is well off. He has always hated women, but now he has gone so far as to buy you at such a price that it is easy to tell what will happen.”--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 03:22, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081516==

只耐得三两日，何必忧闷？’他听如此说，方略解些，自谓从此得所。谁料天下竟有不如意事，第二日，他偏又卖与了薛家。

Only for three or two days, why bother to be depressed? Hearing this, he relieved a little bit, saying that he would get a place to settle since then. Unexpectedly, everything is never perfect. On the next day, he was sold to the Marshgrass.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 07:13, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学女 202120081517==

若卖与第二家还好，这薛公子的混名，人称他‘呆霸王’，最是天下第一个弄性尚气的人，而且使钱如土。只打了个落花流水，生拖死拽，把个英莲拖去，如今也不知死活。

It would be better if Wiselotus Potterymaker was sold to the second person. The inflame of Dragon Marshgrass who was called Dull Overlord was the most capricious man in the world and spent money like the earth. He fought with those people who shanghaied Wiselotus Potterymaker, and scrambled for Wiselotus whose life was not assured.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 07:44, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==

这冯公子空喜一场，一念未遂，反花了钱，送了命，岂不可叹！”雨村听了，也叹道：“这也是他们的孽障遭遇，亦非偶然，不然这冯渊如何偏只看上了这英莲？

“Feng Yuan dreamed of happiness, but instead of finding it he lost his life. What a pity!” Rain Village Merchant heard it and signed: “ that is also their evil encounter which is not a coincidence. Otherwise, Feng Yuan only had a crush on Ying Liam?”--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 07:35, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==

这英莲受了拐子这几年折磨，才得了个路头，且又是个多情的，若果聚合了，倒是件美事，偏又生出这段事来。这薛家纵比冯家富贵，想其为人，自然姬妾众多，淫佚无度，未必及冯渊定情于一人。

Finally,Ying Lian could get rid of the miserable life after being tortured by the trafficker for so many years. As Xue Pan is an amorous person, it would be a good thing if she could marry to him. However, such an unexpected thing deliberately happened. Even if the Xue family is richer than the Feng family, but think of his moral quality, he must be a man with many concubines and indulge himself in a luxury and incontinent life. In addition, He may not be devoted to only one person as Feng Yuan would do.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 07:55, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

Pity Zhen has been tortured by human traffickers for several years before she can finally get rid of it. Although Dragon Marshgrass is an amorous person, it would be a good thing if she could marry and tie the knot. However, such an unbelievable thing deliberately happened. Even if the Xue family is richer than the Feng family, it's normal to think of him as a man with many concubines. He is lost without measure. He may not be devoted to one person as Feng Yuan does.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 14:35, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081520==

这正是梦幻情缘，恰遇见一对薄命儿女。且不要议论他人，只目今这官司如何剖断才好？”门子笑道：“老爷当年何其明决，今日何反成个没主意的人了？

It is exactly the love of dream, coincidentally to be a pair of ill-fated couple. Not to mention other things, but how should we judge this case today?" The servant said with a smile, "Your Lordship was so clear and decisive back then, why are you so hesitant and irresolute now?"--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 14:28, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

It should be the love of dream, only to be an ill-fated couple. Don’t talk about others for the moment. It’s crucial that this case be judged properly.” The servant said with a smile, “ how decisive you were in those days. Why are you so irresolute at the present ?”--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081521==

小的听见老爷补升此任，系贾府、王府之力。此薛蟠即贾府之亲，老爷何不顺水行舟，做个人情，将此案了结，日后也好去见贾、王二公。”

I heard that you assumed office with the help of Merchant Mansion and King Mansion. Dragon Marshgrass is a relative of Merchant Mansion. Why don’t you do him a special favor, making use of the opportunity to settle the case, so that you can make a smooth explanation to Master Merchant and Master King in days to come.”--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 07:03, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

I heard that you got a promotion additionally with the help of Jia Mansion and Wang Mansion. Dragon Marshgrass is a relative of Jia Mansion. Why don’t you do him a special favor, making use of the opportunity to settle the case, so that you can make a smooth explanation to master Jia and Wang in days to come.”--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 05:42, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081522==

雨村道：“你说的何尝不是，但事关人命，蒙皇上隆恩，起复委用，正竭力图报之时，岂可因私枉法？是实不忍为的。”门子听了，冷笑道：

Yucun says: " What you said is right, but it is a matter of people's lives.I am so grateful that the emperor can appoint me. It's the time when I need to try my best to reward.Should I ignore the law for personal gain? It is really unbearable."The doorman listened, and said with a sneer:--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 05:38, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

Yucun said:" What you said is right, but it is a matter of life. I am so grateful that the emperor can restore me to the commission. It's the time when I need to try my best to repay it, how can I ignore the law for personal gain? It is really unbearable." Hearing this, the doorman said with a sneer: --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 07:51, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081523==

“老爷说的自是正理，但如今世上是行不去的。岂不闻古人说的：‘大丈夫相时而动。’又说：‘趋吉避凶者为君子。’依老爷这话，不但不能报效朝廷，亦且自身不保，还要三思为妥。”

“What lord said is reasonable, but it is unfeasible in the current world. Have you not heard what the ancients said:’ A real man can take action according to the specific situation’, and ‘The one who can avoid calamity and bring on good fortune is a gentleman.’ According to lord’s words, you not only can’t serve the court, but also can’t protect yourself. You’d better think it over. ‘ --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 15:40, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学女 202120081524==

雨村低了头，半日方说道：“依你怎么着？”门子道：“小人已想了个很好的主意在此：老爷明日坐堂，只管虚张声势，动文书，发签拿人。

==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学）男 202120081525==

凶犯自然是拿不来的，原告固是不依，只用将薛家族人及奴仆人等拿几个来拷问；小的在暗中调停，令他们报个‘暴病身亡’，合族中及地方上共递一张保呈。

Naturally, the murderer could not get it. The plaintiff did not follow it. He only took a few of the Xue family and slave servants to torture them; The small ones were secretly mediating, so that they reported a "violent illness" and a joint guarantee was handed over to the middle and local communities.--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 11:25, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081526==

老爷只说善能扶鸾请仙，堂上设了乩坛，令军民人等只管来看。老爷便说：‘乩仙批了，死者冯渊与薛蟠原系夙孽，今犯狭路相遇，原应了结：

The lord requested to set out the altar in order to invite immortals to come, and let the military and people to come to see. The lord then said that after coscinomancy finished, the dead Feng Yuan and Xue Pan should have come to an end because they used to be long-standing and are bound to meet head-on on a narrow road.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 14:46, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527==

今薛蟠已得了无名之病，被冯渊的魂魄追索而死。其祸皆由拐子而起，除将拐子按法处治外，馀不累及’等语。小人暗中嘱咐拐子，令其实招。

==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528==

众人见乩仙批语与拐子相符，自然不疑了。薛家有的是钱，老爷断一千也可，五百也可，与冯家作烧埋之费。那冯家也无甚要紧的人，不过为的是钱，有了银子，也就无话了。

The crowed had no doubt after they saw the remarks of divinities in accordance with the trickster. The Xues had plenty of money, the Lord could give one thousand Yang yuan, or five hundred, to the Fengs for funeral expenses.There was no one of special importance in the Fengs, all they wanted was just the money. Having received the money, they wouldn't say anything more.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 14:25, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

The people had no doubt after seeing the remarks of divinities in accordance with the trickster. The Xues had plenty of money, the Lord could give one thousand yuan, or five hundred, to the Fengs for funeral expenses.There was no one of special importance in the Fengs, all they wanted was just the money. Having received the money, they wouldn't say anything more. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529==

老爷细想，此计如何？”雨村笑道：“不妥，不妥。等我再斟酌斟酌，压服得口声才好。”二人计议已定。至次日坐堂，勾取一干有名人犯，雨村详加审问。

The lord thought carefully, and asked how about this plan? Yucun laughed and said: “ It’s not the right way, it’s not the right way. Let me think the matter over, the plan should be convinced by all the others.” Then they confirmed the plan. At tomorrow’s court session, convening all criminals, whose name was known, Yucun questioned them seriously. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:31, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学女 202120081530==

果见冯家人口稀少，不过赖此欲得些烧埋之银；薛家仗势倚情，偏不相让：故致颠倒未决。雨村便徇情枉法，胡乱判断了此案。

==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081531==

冯家得了许多烧埋银子，也就无甚话说了。雨村便疾忙修书二封与贾政并京营节度使王子腾，不过说“令甥之事已完，不必过虑”之言寄去。

The Feng family got a lot of buried silver and had nothing to say. Rain village will quickly repair two letters and Jia Zheng and Jingying jie make Prince Teng, but said "nephew has finished, do not have to worry about" words to send.--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 10:25, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081532==

此事皆由葫芦庙内沙弥新门子所为，雨村又恐他对人说出当日贫贱时事来，因此心中大不乐意。后来到底寻了他一个不是，远远的充发了才罢。当下言不着雨村。

It was all done by a novice monk Xinmenzi in Gourd Temple. Yucun was afraid that he would tell people about the awful current affairs of that day, so he was very unsatisfied. Later, Yucan pick holes in him , and banished him far away. Now, there was no one talking about bad things about Yucun.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 14:05, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学女 202120081533==

且说那买了英莲、打死冯渊的薛公子，亦系金陵人氏，本是书香继世之家。只是如今这薛公子幼年丧父，寡母又怜他是个独根孤种，未免溺爱纵容些，遂致老大无成；

==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081534==

且家中有百万之富，现领着内帑钱粮，采办杂料。这薛公子学名薛蟠，表字文起，性情奢侈，言语傲慢；虽也上过学，不过略识几个字，终日惟有斗鸡走马，游山玩景而已。

In addition, there are countless money in the family, and now people are taking the domestic money and food to purchase stuffs. The Mr. Xue so-called Xue Pan, is entitled as Wenqi with extravagant temperament and arrogant speech. Although he has also gone to school, but he knows a few words, he only like fighting cock walking around the mountains and enjoying the scenery all day long.

In addition, there are countless money in the family, and now people are taking the domestic money and food to purchase stuffs. Mr.Xue, whose name is Xue Pan, is entitled as Wenqi with extravagant temperament and arrogant speech. Although he has also gone to school, he knows a few words, he only like fighting cock walking around the mountains and enjoying the scenery all day long.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:21, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究男 202120081535==

虽是皇商，一应经纪世事全然不知，不过赖祖、父旧日的情分，户部挂个虚名，支领钱粮；其馀事体，自有伙计、老家人等措办。

Although he was a royal merchant, he knew nothing about economics. However, due to the old affection of his grandfathers and fathers, he was given a virtual position in Board of Revenue to received money and grain, and the rest of affairs were handled by his clerks and old family members.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 09:43, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Although he was a royal merchant, he knew nothing about economics. However, due to the old affection of his ancestors and his father, he was given a virtual position in Board of Revenue to received money and grain, and the rest of affairs were handled by his clerks and old family members.--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 11:08, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536==

寡母王氏，乃现任京营节度使王子腾之妹，与荣国府贾政的夫人王氏是一母所生的姊妹，今年方五十上下，只有薛蟠一子。还有一女，比薛蟠小两岁，乳名宝钗，生得肌骨莹润，举止娴雅。

Wang, the widowed mother, is the sister of Wang Ziteng, the current governor of Jingying Festival and the sister of Wang, the wife of Jia Zheng in the Rongguo mansion. This year, she is about 50, and has only a son Xue Pan. Besides, she has a daughter, whose milk name is Bao Chai, two years younger than Xue Pan. Bao Chai has beautiful body and behave elegantly .

Besides, she has a daughter, whose small name is Bao Chai, two years younger than Xue Pan.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 06:50, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别女 202120081537==

当时他父亲在日极爱此女，令其读书识字，较之乃兄竟高十倍。自父亲死后，见哥哥不能安慰母心，他便不以书字为念，只留心针黹、家计等事，好为母亲分忧代劳。

His father had been so fond of her that he had sent her to read ten times better than her brother. Seeing that her brother could not pacify her mother after her father's death, she stopped thinking about reading and only cared about needle-work and family livelihood in order to share her mother's cares and duties.
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 06:49, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

ever since her father's death, that her brother could not appease the anguish of her mother's heart, she at once dispelled all thoughts of books. and gave her sole mind to needlework, to the menage and other such concerns, so as to be able to participate in her mother's sorrow, and to bear the fatigue in lieu of her.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 10:41, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别女 202120081538==

近因今上崇尚诗礼，征采才能，降不世之隆恩，除聘选妃嫔外，凡世宦名家之女，皆得亲名达部，以备选择为公主、郡主入学陪侍，充为才人、赞善之职。

Recently, the Emperor in order to respect culture, promote etiquette and explore talents, in addition to selecting good wives and mothers to serve the emperor, the daughters of families of hereditary official status and renown were without exception, reported by name to the authorities, and communicated to the Board,in anticipation of the selection for maids in waiting to the Imperial Princesses and daughters of Imperial Princes in their studies, become “Cairen, Zanshan”.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 10:37, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

Recently, in order to respect culture, promote etiquette and explore talents,the Emperor held learning and propriety in high esteem, in addition to selecting consorts and ladies-in-waiting, , the daughters of families of hereditary official status and renown were without exception, reported by name to the authorities, and communicated to the Board,in anticipation of the selection for maids in waiting to the Imperial Princesses and daughters of Imperial Princes in their studies, become “Cairen, Zanshan”.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 07:54, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别女 202120081540==

自薛蟠父亲死后，各省中所有的买卖承局、总管、伙计人等，见薛蟠年轻不谙世事，便趁时拐骗起来，京都几处生意，渐亦销耗。

Ever since the death of Xue Pan's father， all the assistants， managers and partners， and other employees in the respective provinces， perceiving how youthful and inexperienced Xue Pan was in years， readily availed themselves of the time to begin swindling and defrauding. As a result, The business， carried on in various different places in the capital，gradually also began to fall off and to show a deficit.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 08:33, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081541==

薛蟠素闻得都中乃第一繁华之地，正思一游，便趁此机会：一来送妹待选；二来望亲；三来亲自入部销算旧账，再计新支；其实只为游览上国风光之意。

==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学女 202120081542==

因此早已检点下行装细软，以及馈送亲友各色土物人情等类，正择日起身，不想偏遇着那拐子卖英莲。薛蟠见英莲生的不俗，立意买了作妾，又遇冯家来夺，因恃强喝令豪奴将冯渊打死。

Xue pan, therefore, has already checked his luggage and jewelry, and also has prepared the local specialty and gifts to his relatives and friends. He was going to set out on another day. Unexpectedly, he met the human trafficker selling Yinglian. Seeing that Yinglian was pretty, Xue pan decided to buy her as a concubine. But he was also robbed by the family Feng,so he ordered a slave to kill Feng Yuan.--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 04:05, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081543==

便将家中事务，一一嘱托了族中人并几个老家人；自己同着母亲、妹子，竟自起身长行去了。人命官司，他却视为儿戏，自谓花上几个钱，没有不了的。

Dragon Marshgrass entrusted the household affairs to the clan middleman and old family members. Then he just went away with his mother and sister. He should deem the affair of murder as a trifling matter and believed it could be easily solved through money.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 12:31, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Then he has entrusted the household affairs to his clans and some from his hometown. While he himself just went away with his mother and sister. He deemed the affair of life and death as nothing and believed that nothing can't be handled by money.--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 04:41, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别男 202120081544==

在路不计其日。那日已将入都，又听见母舅王子腾升了九省统制，奉旨出都查边。薛蟠心中暗喜道：“我正愁进京去有舅舅管辖，不能任意挥霍；如今升出去，可知天从人愿。”

No time is counted when on the journey. That day he was about to enter the capital, and heard that mother-uncle Wang Ziten was promoted military commander and ordered to leave the capital to guard the border. Xue Pan merrily thought:" I'm just worried that I can't do whatever I want under uncle's jurisdiction, now he's promoted and about to leave, great! How lucky I am!"

No time is counted when on the journey. That day he was about to enter the capital, and heard that maternal uncle Soar King promoted to nine provinces, by decree out of the capital to check the border.Dragon Marshgrass heart secretly happy: " I was worried about going to the capital to have uncle's jurisdiction, can not be arbitrary spending; now promoted out, I know God from the wishes of man. "--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 05:15, 29 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081545==

因和母亲商议道：“咱们京中虽有几处房舍，只是这十来年没人居住，那看守的人未免偷着租赁给人住，须得先着人去打扫收拾才好。”他母亲道：“何必如此招摇？”

So he discussed with his mother, "Although we have a few premises in the capital, no one has lived there for ten years, the guards may sneakily rent to people to live, we must first ask someone to clean and tidy up." His mother said, "Why do you have to be so flashy? "--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 09:23, 25 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

So he discussed with his mother, "Although we have a few houses in the capital, no one has lived there for ten years. The guards may sneakily rent the house to other people, so we must first send someone to tidy up the house. His mother said, "Why do you have to be so flashy? "--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:50, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081546==

咱们这进京去，原是先拜望亲友，或是在你舅舅处，或是你姨父家，他两家的房舍极是宽敞的，咱们且住下，再慢慢儿的着人去收拾，岂不消停些？”

Now we go to the capital Beijing, and we should visit our relatives first. Your uncle‘s or your aunt‘s husband’s house are good choices, and their houses are very spacious. Let's stay there for a while and then send someone to clean up the house，and it will be more inconspicuous.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 13:38, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081547==

薛蟠道：“如今舅舅正升了外省去，家里自然忙乱起身，咱们这会子反一窝一拖的奔了去，岂不没眼色呢？”他母亲道：“你舅舅虽升了去，还有你姨父家。

==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081548==

况这几年来，你舅舅、姨娘两处，每每带信捎书接咱们来；如今既来了，你舅舅虽忙着起身，你贾家的姨娘未必不苦留我们，咱们且忙忙的收拾房子，岂不使人见怪？你的意思，我早知道了：

In the past few years, your uncle and aunt have often sent us letters to bring us here. Now that we have come, although your uncle is busy, Merchant's aunt may
try leaving us, we are busy making up the house, won't make people mind? I have already know what you mean: --[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 05:28, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081549==

守着舅舅、姨母住着，未免拘紧了；不如各自住着，好任意施为。你既如此，你自去挑所宅子去住；我和你姨娘，姊妹们别了这几年，却要住几日，我带了你妹子去投你姨娘家去。你道好不好？”

==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学女 202120081550==

薛蟠见母亲如此说，情知扭不过，只得吩咐人夫，一路奔荣国府而来。那时王夫人已知薛蟠官司一事，亏贾雨村就中维持了，才放了心。
Dragon Marshgrass saw his mother said so, I know that the twist can not, only to order the husband, all the way to the Rongguo House and come. At that time, Lady King knew that Dragon Marshgrass lawsuit, thanks to Rainvillage Merchant on the maintenance of the heart.

Seeing that his mother said so,Dragon Marshgrass had no choice but to order the husband to come all the way to Jung-guo-Anwesen. At that time, Lady King was relieved when she knew about Dragon Marshgrass's lawsuit and lost Rainvillage Merchant's support.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 07:34, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别男 202120081551==

又见哥哥升了边缺，正愁少了娘家的亲戚来往，略觉寂寞。过了几日，忽家人报：“姨太太带了哥儿、姐儿，合家进京，在门外下车了。”

Seeing that her brother was promoted, she was worried about the lack of relatives in her mother's family, and felt a little lonely. A few days later, suddenly her family reported: "concubine brought her brothers and sisters to Beijing and got off outside the door."--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 10:02, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Seeing that her brother was promoted, Dragon Marshgrass was worried about the lack of relatives in her mother's family, and felt a little lonely. A few days later, suddenly her family reported: "concubine brought her brothers and sisters to Beijing and got off outside the door."--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:38, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552==

喜的王夫人忙带了人，接到大厅上，将薛姨妈等接进去了。姊妹们一朝相见，悲喜交集，自不必说。叙了一番契阔，又引着拜见贾母，将人情土物各种酬献了，合家俱厮见过，又治席接风。

Lady King was so happy that she brought someone to the hall and took Aunt Marshgrass in. The sisters were joy tempered with sorrow to see each other that it goes without saying. Told a story of great deeds, and led to visit Grandma Merchant, all kinds of reward will be offered, together with the furniture saw, and treat the seat to receive wind.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:35, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Mr. Wang was so happy that she brought someone to the hall and took Aunt Xue in. The sisters were in joy tempered with sorrow to see each other that it goes without saying. Told a story of great deeds, and led to visit Grandma Merchant, all kinds of reward will be offered, together with the furniture saw, and treat the seat to receive wind.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 10:07, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553==

薛蟠拜见过贾政、贾琏，又引着见了贾赦、贾珍等。贾政便使人进来对王夫人说：“姨太太已有了年纪，外甥年轻，不知庶务，在外住着，恐又要生事。

Dragon Marshgrass met Master Merchant and Romance Merchant and introduced Pardon Merchant and Treasure Merchant. Master Merchant sent someone in and said to Lady King, "my aunt is old, and my nephew is young. He doesn't know about general affairs. If he is living outside, I am afraid that something will happen again.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 10:10, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

Dragon Marshgrass met Master Merchant and Romance Merchant and introduced Pardon Merchant and Treasure Merchant. Master Merchant sent someone in and said to Lady King, "my aunt is old, and my nephew is young. He doesn't know about general affairs. If he lives outside, I am afraid that he will make some trouble.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081554==

咱们东南角上梨香院那一所房十来间白空闲着，叫人请了姨太太和姐儿、哥儿住了甚好。”王夫人原要留住。贾母也遣人来说：“请姨太太就在这里住下，大家亲密些。”

“We have a room in the southeast corner of the Li Xiang courtyard that is vacant, and ask someone to invite the aunt and sister and brother to live here.” Mrs. Wang originally wanted to stay. Mrs. Jia also sent someone to say: “Please invite the aunt to stay here, the relationship between us will be closer.”--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

“We have dozens of room in the southeast corner of the Pear Fragrance court that is vacant, and ask someone to invite the aunt and sister and brother to live here.” Lady King originally wanted to stay. Grandma Merchant also sent someone to say: “Please stay here, the relationship between us will be closer.”--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 07:56, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081555==

薛姨妈正欲同居一处，方可拘紧些儿子；若另住在外边，又恐他纵性惹祸：遂忙应允。又私与王夫人说明：“一应日费供给，一概都免，方是处常之法。”

Aunt Marshgrass wanted to live here so that she could supervise her son. If she lived elsewhere, she feared that her son would get into trouble again. Therefore, she agreed immediately and said to Lady King privately, "the Xue family will pay for all the supplies by themselves, which is the only way to get along with them for a long time."

Aunt Marshgrass wanted to live here so that she could supervise her son. If she lived elsewhere, she feared that her son would get into trouble again. Therefore, she agreed immediately and explicated to Lady King privately, "the Marshgrass family will pay for all the supplies by themselves, which is the only way to get along with them for a long time."--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 07:52, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学女 202120081556==

王夫人知他家不难于此，遂亦从其自便。从此后，薛家母女就在梨香院住了。原来这梨香院乃当日荣公暮年养静之所，小小巧巧，约有十馀间房舍，前厅后舍俱全。

Lady King knew that it was not difficult to solve this problem, so she agreed to come down. From then on, the mother and daughter of the Marshgrass family lived in the Pear Fragrant Court. It turned out that the pear Hyangwon used to be the residence of King Yeongguk when he retired. It was small, but there were about a dozen houses with a complete front hall and back yard.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 07:49, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081557==

另有一门通街，薛蟠的家人就走此门出入。西南上又有一个角门，通着夹道子，出了夹道，便是王夫人正房的东院了。每日或饭后或晚间，薛姨妈便过来，或与贾母闲谈，或与王夫人相叙；

There was another gate to the street, through which Xue Pan's family went in and out. There is another side gate in the southwest, which leads to the narrow lane. Out of it, comes the east courtyard of Lady King's principal room. Every day, after dinner or in the evening, Aunt Marshgrass came to chat with Grandma Merchant or Lady King;--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 12:49, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

There was another door leading to the street, and Xue Pan's family walked in and out through this door. There is another corner door on the southwest, leading through the lane, and out of the lane, it is the east courtyard of Mrs. Wang's main house. Every day, after dinner or in the evening, Aunt Xue came over, chatting with Jia's mother, or narrating with Mrs. Wang.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 07:23, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学女 202120081558==

宝钗日与黛玉、迎春姊妹等一处，或看书下棋，或做针黹：倒也十分相安。只是薛蟠起初原不欲在贾府中居住，生恐姨父管束，不得自在。无奈母亲执意在此，且贾宅中又十分殷勤苦留，只得暂且住下；

During the day, Baochai was in peace with Daiyu and Sister Yingchun, reading a book, playing chess, or doing stitches. It's just that Xue Pan didn't want to live in Jia's house at first, and was afraid of his uncle's control and uncomfortable. But my mother insisted on staying here, and the people in Jia's house were so diligent to stay, so they had to stay temporarily.

During the day, Precious Hairpin Marshgrass was in peace with with Mascara Jade Forest, Spring Pleasure Merchant, her sisters and the other girls, either to read, to play chess, or to do needlework. It's just that Dragon Marshgrass didn't want to live in Jia's house at first, and was afraid of his uncle's control and uncomfortable. But my mother insisted on staying here, and the people in Jia's house were so diligent to stay, so they had to stay temporarily.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 07:19, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学女 202120081559==

一面使人打扫出自家的房屋，再移居过去。谁知自此间住了不上一月，贾宅族中凡有的子侄，俱已认熟了一半，都是那些纨袴气习，莫不喜与他来往。

at the same time he directed servants to go and sweep the apartments of their own house and they should move into them when they were ready.
But, contrary to expectation， for not over a month，Dragon Marshgrass to be on intimate relations with all the young men among the kindred of the Jia mansion， the half of whom were extravagant in their habits and glad to make contact with he.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 06:44, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

At the same time，he arranged servants to clean their own house apartments and then moved to the apartment for living.However,less than a month's living，he has been acquainted with hallf of the sons and nephews in the clan of Chia. They were extravagant in their habits and glad to make friends with him.--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 13:46, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081561==

今日会酒，明日观花，甚至聚赌嫖娼，无所不至，引诱的薛蟠比当日更坏了十倍。虽说贾政训子有方，治家有法，一则族大人多，照管不到；二则现在房长乃是贾珍，彼乃宁府长孙，又现袭职，凡族中事，都是他掌管；
Staying together and drinking wine today, appreciating flowers tomorrow, and even gambling and prostitution, everything will be done. Xue Pan, who is seduced, is ten times worse than that day. Although Jia Zhengxun is good at governing family, on the one hand,there are so many people in the family that he can not look after everyone; On the other hand, the house chief is Jia Zhen, and he is the eldest grandson of the Ning Mansion, now everything is in charge of him.

Today having party and drinking, tomorrow watching flower, and even gambling and whoring are all around. Xue pan is ten times worse than that day. Although Jia Zheng correctly taught his children,Run the family with laws and regulations,For one thing, there are too many people to take care of; Second, now the head of the house is Jia Zhen, the grandson of the head of ,He was in charge of the Ning Mansion， all the affairs of the family，he is in charge of everything in the family;--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 03:34, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学女 202120081562==

三则公私冗杂，且素性潇洒，不以俗事为要，每公暇之时，不过看书、着棋而已；况这梨香院相隔两层房舍，又有街门别开，任意可以出入：

Third, the public and private are miscellaneous, and they are natural and unrestrained. They don't focus on mundane affairs. In their spare time, they just read books and play chess;Moreover, the Lixiang courtyard is separated by two floors, and the street door is not open, so you can go in and out at will:

==Nadia 202011080004==

这些子弟们所以只管放意畅怀的，因此薛蟠遂将移居之念渐渐打灭了。

==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==

日后如何，下回分解。葫芦僧判断葫芦案──

==Mariam Toure 2020GBJ002301==

“葫芦”的谐音为糊涂，故其意谓糊涂僧糊涂判案。

==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==

指知县贾雨村按照现为衙门门子而原为葫芦庙小沙弥的主意糊里糊涂判结了薛蟠强买甄英莲并打死人命一案。

Zhizhi County Jia Yucun was confused and convicted the case of Xue Panqiang buying Zhen Yinglian and killing people based on the idea that he is now Yamenzi but was originally a young novice monk in the Gourd Temple.

==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==

女子无才便是德──语出明·张岱《公祭祁夫人文》：

==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==

“(陈)眉公曰：‘丈夫有德便是才，女子无才便是德。’此语殊为未确。”

==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==

(又见清·石成金《家训钞》引)
Translation: (See also the quote from Shi Chengjin's "Family Instructions")

==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==

意谓女子如果读书识字，便可能受到小说、戏曲的不良影响，做出伤风败俗的事，倒不如不识字而能保持妇德。

==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==

《女四书》、《列女传》──都是记述历代贤德女子的事迹，以宣扬封建妇德的书。
English:The Four Books on Women and the Biography of Lienu ─ ─ both describe the deeds of

virtuous women in past dynasties to publicize the feudal virtues of women.

==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==

《女四书》：明·王相模仿南宋·朱熹所编《四书》而辑成，包括东汉·班昭的《女诫》、唐·宋若莘和宋若昭的《女论语》、明·永乐皇后徐氏的《内训》、王相之母刘氏的《女范捷录》四种专讲女德的书，故称。

==Öncü 202121080008==

《列女传》：西汉·刘向编撰。全书七卷，每卷为一类，分别为母仪、贤明、仁智、贞顺、节义、辩通、嬖孽，共收妇女故事一百零四则。

"Biographies of Exemplary Women": compiled by the western Han dynasty Liu Xiang. There are seven volumes in the whole book, each of which is a category. respectively, there are one hundred and four women's stories, including Mu Yi, Xian Ming, Ren Zhi, Zhen Shun, Jie Yi, Bian Tong, and Bi Nie.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 06:33, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==

纺绩女红(gōng工)──泛指女子应做的家务活计。

Spinning needlework ——— Make a general reference of as housework that a woman should do.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 05:25, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

Fangji Female Red (''gong'')──refers to the household chores of women.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 19:13, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==

纺绩：“纺”是把丝纺成纱，“绩”是把麻绩成线。

''Fangji'': "Fang" means to spin silk into yarn, "Ji" means to turn the hemp into thread.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 19:06, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

''Fangji'': ''Fang'' means spinning silk into yarn, ''Ji'' means turning hemp into thread. --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 01:48, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==Asep Budiman 202111080020==

女红：又作“女工”或“女功”。

Female Red (''gong''): is also known as "female worker" or "female performer". --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 01:46, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==

是指纺织、缝纫、刺绣等。

20211222 homework

2021-12-29T07:58:01Z

Zeng Junlin: /* 曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478 */

Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

PLEASE READ [[Joint_translation_terms|Joint translation terms]]

PLEASE ALSO READ THE PREVIOUS PARTS, AT LEAST THE SENTENCES BEFORE YOUR OWN PART IN CHAPTER 19 [[20210303_culture|1, Mar 3 Chapters 1-4]], [[20210310_culture|2, Mar 10 Chapters 6-7]], [[20210317_culture|3, Mar 17 Chapters 11-13]], [[20210324_culture|4, Mar 24 Chapters 15-17]], [[20210331_culture|5, Mar 31 Chapters 4-7]], [[20210407_culture|6, Apr 7 Chapters 8-10]], [[20210414_culture|7, Apr 14 Chapters 13-15]] , [[20210519_culture|12, May 19 Chapters 17-19]], [[20210929_homework#Hongloumeng|for Sep 29 - rest of HLM Chapter 19]] [[20211013_homework|for Oct 13 - HLM Chapters 20-21]] [[20211020_homework|for Oct 20 - HLM Chapters 21-22]] etc.

==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别女 202020080595==

闲静似娇花照水，行动如弱柳扶风。心较比干多一窍，病如西子胜三分。宝玉看罢，笑道：“这个妹妹我曾见过的。”

She, who is demure as delicate flowers and act like weak willow, is more clever than Bigan(the most clever man in the Legend of Deification) and more beautiful than Xishi(the most beautiful woman in acient China). Precious Jade simled, “I have seen her.”--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 11:26, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Leisure is like a delicate flower shining on the water, and action is like a weak willow supporting the wind. The heart has more than one orifices than the stem, and like a disease wins Xizi. Baoyu said with a smile, "I've seen this sister."
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 11:18, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 日语语言文学女 202120081477==

贾母笑道：“又胡说了，你何曾见过？”宝玉笑道：“虽没见过，却看着面善，心里倒像是远别重逢的一般。”贾母笑道：“好，好！这么更相和睦了。”

Granny Merchant smiled and said, "nonsense again. Have you ever seen her?" Jia Baotou WE Precious Jade said with a smile, "although I haven't seen her, I look good and feel like I'm far from meeting again." Granny Merchant said with a smile, "OK, OK! It's more harmonious."
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 11:22, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Dowager Jia smiled and said, "nonsense again. Have you ever seen it?" Baoyu said with a smile, "although I haven't seen it, I look good and feel like I'm far from meeting again." Dowager Jia said with a smile, "OK, OK! It's more harmonious."--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 13:18, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

Grandma Merchant smiled and said, "Nonsense again. Have you ever seen it?" Precious Jade said with a smile, "Although I haven't seen it, I look good and feel like I'm far from meeting again." Grandma Merchant said with a smile, "OK, OK! It's more harmonious."--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 13:18, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478==

宝玉便走向黛玉身边坐下，又细细打量一番，因问：“妹妹可曾读书？”黛玉道：“不曾读书，只上了一年学，些须认得几个字。”

Precious Jade Merchant went to Mascara Jade Forest and sat down. He looked at her carefully, because she asked, "has your sister ever read?" Mascara Jade Forest said, "I didn't study. I only studied for a year. I have to recognize a few words."--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 13:12, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

Precious Jade Merchant went to Mascara Jade Forest and sat down. He looked at her carefully, because he asked, "has you ever went to school?" Mascara Jade Forest said, "I didn't go to school. I only studied for a year, so I can recognize a few words."--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 06:13, 27 December 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081479==

宝玉又道：“妹妹尊名？”黛玉便说了名。宝玉又道：“表字？”黛玉道：“无字。”

Baoyuu asked, "What is your name?" Daiyu told her name to him. Baoyu said, "Watch characters?" "No words," Said Daiyu.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 06:10, 27 December 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

Baoyuu asked, "What is your name?" Daiyu told her name to him. Baoyu said, "What's your courtesy name?" "I don't have a courtesy name" Said Daiyu.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 01:21, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081480==

宝玉笑道：“我送妹妹一字：莫若‘颦颦’二字极妙。”探春便道：“何处出典？”宝玉道：“《古今人物通考》上说：

Baoyu smiled and said:" I want to describe you with two words—Ping Ping, and no words are better than them." Tanchun then asked:"In which book did you find them?" Baoyu said:" On ''General Study of Ancient and Modern Characters''"--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 01:04, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

Precious Jade smiled and said:" I want to give away two words to you—Pingping, and no words are better than them." Tanchun then asked:"In which book did you find them?" Jade said:"''On General Study of Ancient and Modern Characters''."--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 06:37, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学女 202120081481==

‘西方有石名黛，可代画眉之墨。’况这妹妹眉尖若蹙，取这个字，岂不甚美？”探春笑道：“只怕又是杜撰。”

'There is a stone in the west named Dai, it can replace the ink of painting eyebrows.' The sister's eyebrows are frown, if take this word for name, isn’t it very beautiful?" Tanchun laughed: "I'm afraid it's a fabrication again."--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 06:29, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

‘There is a stone in the west named Dai, it can replace the ink of drawing eyebrows.' Besides, her eyebrows are frown, if take this word for name, isn’t it very beautiful?" Tanchun laughed: "I'm afraid it's a fabrication again."--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 11:33, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081482==

宝玉笑道：“除了《四书》，杜撰的也太多呢。”因又问黛玉：“可有玉没有？”众人都不解。

Baoyu laughed and said, "Besides the Four Books, there are too many things made up." Again he asked Daiyu, "Do you have any jade?" Everyone was puzzled.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 11:35, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Precious Jade laughed and said, "Besides the Four Books, there are too many things made up." Again he asked Mascara Jade Forest, "Do you have any jade?" Everyone was puzzled.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 04:54, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081483==

黛玉便忖度着：“因他有玉，所以才问我的。”便答道：“我没有玉。你那玉也是件稀罕物儿，岂能人人皆有？”

Mascara Jade Forest contemplated, “He asked me because he has a jade.” So she answered, “I have no jade. Your jade is a rarity. How could everyone have it?”--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 13:45, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

Mascara Jade Forest presumed, “He asked me because he has a jade.” So she answered, “I have no jade. Your jade is a rarity. How could everyone have it?”--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 08:25, 23 December 2021 (UTC)

==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnuó 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081484==

宝玉听了，登时发作起狂病来，摘下那玉就狠命摔去，骂道：“什么罕物！人的高下不识，还说灵不灵呢！我也不要这劳什子！”

After hearing that,Precious Jade Merchant suddenly went mad. And he took off and dropped the jade with cursing that “What the hell is a rare thing! You all say that it is divine, but it can't tell lowliness or nobleness.I won't have the waste now!” --[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 12:29, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

After hearing that,Precious Jade Merchant suddenly went mad. And he took off and dropped the jade with cursing that “What the hell is a rare thing! You all say that it is divine, but nobody could tell lowliness or nobleness.I won't have the waste now!” --[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 11:18, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 11:19, 26 December 2021 (UTC)==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081485==

吓的地下众人一拥争去拾玉。贾母急的搂了宝玉道：“孽障，你生气，要打骂人容易，何苦摔那命根子？”宝玉满面泪痕，哭道：“家里姐姐妹妹都没有，单我有，我说没趣儿；

The aside servants were scared and then rushed to pick up the jade.Jia's mother anxiously hugged Baoyu and said:" poor kid, if you are angry, why do you bother to fall the jade rahtere to beat and curse."Covered with tears, Baoyu cried:" my beloved elder and litter sisters have no one. I'm ashamed of owning one."--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 11:19, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

All those, who stood below, were startled; and in a body they pressed forward, vying with each other as to who should pick up the gem.
Grandma Merchant was so distressed that she clasped Precious Jade in her embrace. "You child of wrath," she exclaimed. "When you get into a passion, it's easy enough for you to beat and abuse people; but what makes you fling away that stem of life?"
Precious Jade’s face was covered with the traces of tears. "All my cousins here, senior as well as junior," he rejoined, as he sobbed, "have no gem, and if it's only I to have one, there's no fun in it, I maintain! “.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 06:27, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学女 202120081486==

如今来了这个神仙似的妹妹也没有：可知这不是个好东西。”贾母忙哄他道：“你这妹妹原有玉来着，因你姑妈去世时，舍不得你妹妹，无法可处，遂将他的玉带了去：

And now comes this angelic sort of cousin, and she too has none, so that it's clear enough that it is no profitable thing." Grandma Merchant hastened to coax him. "This cousin of yours," she explained, "would, under former circumstances, have come here with a jade; and it's because your aunt felt unable, as she lay on her death-bed, to reconcile herself to the separation from your cousin, that in the absence of any remedy, she forthwith took the gem belonging to her (daughter), along with her (in the grave); --[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 12:24, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

Now the newly arrived cousin who is as lovely as a fairy hasn't got one either, so it can't be any good." "Your cousin did have one once," said Dowager lady Chia to soothe him, "but when your aunt was dying she was unwilling to leave your cousin, the best she could do was to take the jade with her instead. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 04:49, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学女 202120081487==

一则全殉葬之礼，尽你妹妹的孝心；二则你姑妈的阴灵儿也可权作见了你妹妹了。因此他说没有，也是不便自己夸张的意思啊。

In that way, your cousin showed her filial piety by letting the jade be buried with her; in the meantime, your aunt’s spirit could see your cousin through the jade. Therefore, when your cousin said she hadn’t got one, it was because she didn’t want to boast about it. --[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 04:50, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

In that way, your cousin showed her filial piety by letting the jade be buried with her; in the meantime, your aunt’s spirit could see your cousin through the jade. Therefore, when your cousin said she hadn’t got one, it was because she didn't want to publicise it.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 07:00, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学女 202120081488==

你还不好生带上，仔细你娘知道。”说着，便向丫鬟手中接来，亲与他带上。宝玉听如此说，想了一想，也就不生别论。

"If you don't take it with you, be careful your mother knows" As she spoke, she took the jade from the servant girl and adorned him herself. When Precious Jade Merchant heard her say this, he thought for a while and said nothing else.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 06:56, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

"You‘d better keep it well in case your mother notices.” As she spoke, she took the jade from the maid and adorned him herself. When Precious Jade Merchant heard her saying this, he thought for a while and said nothing else. --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 12:18, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学女 202120081489==

当下奶娘来问黛玉房舍，贾母便说：“将宝玉挪出来，同我在套间暖阁里，把你林姑娘暂且安置在碧纱厨里。等过了残冬，春天再给他们收拾房屋，另作一番安置罢。”

When the nanny came to ask where Mascara Jade should stay, Lady Dowager answered, “ Place Precious Jade in the warm house in my suit and settle your Miss Forest in the Green Voile House temporarily until the winter ends. In next spring, you’ll rearrange the room for them.”--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 12:34, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

Hardly when the nanny came to ask the room of Mascara Jade, Lady Dowager said, “ Place Precious Jade in the warm house with me and settle your Miss Lin inside the room of the partition door temporarily until the winter ends. In next spring, you’ll rearrange the room for them.”--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 11:31, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081490==

宝玉道：“好祖宗，我就在碧纱厨外的床上很妥当，又何必出来，闹的老祖宗不得安静呢？”贾母想一想说：“也罢了。

Baoyu said:” Dear grandma, I would rather stay at the bed outside the partition door, than at your room to bother you.” The Lady Dowager said thoughtfully:”That’s Ok.”--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 05:38, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

Presious Jade said:"Dear mother, I would rather stay on the bed outside the partition door rather than at grandma's to bother her." The Lady Dowager said thoughtfully:"That's OK."--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 09:06, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491==

每人一个奶娘并一个丫头照管，馀者在外间上夜听唤。”一面早有熙凤命人送了一顶藕合色花帐并锦被、缎褥之类。

But let each one of you have a nurse, as well as a waiting-maid to attend on you; the other servants can remain in the outside rooms and keep night watch and be ready to answer any call." At an early hour, besides, Hsi-feng had sent a servant round with a grey flowered curtain, embroidered coverlets and satin quilts and other such articles.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

But let each one of you have a nurse and a waiting-maid; the other servants can remain in the outside rooms and keep night watch and be ready to answer any call." At an early hour, besides, Hsi-feng had sent a servant round with a grey flowered curtain, embroidered coverlets and satin quilts and other such articles.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:22, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492==

黛玉只带了两个人来：一个是自己的奶娘王嬷嬷；一个是十岁的小丫头，名唤雪雁。贾母见雪雁甚小，一团孩气；

Daiyu had brought her old Wet-nurse Nanny Wang and ten-year-old Xueyan,who had also attended her since she was a child. The Lady Dowager considered Xueyan too young;--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 14:17, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

Daiyu had brought her old Wet-nurse Nanny Wang and ten-year-old Xueyan,who had also attended her since she was a child. The Lady Dowager considered Xueyan too young;--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 01:41, 26 December 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别男 202120081493==

王嬷嬷又极老：料黛玉皆不遂心，将自己身边一个二等小丫头，名唤鹦哥的与了黛玉。亦如迎春等一般：每人除自幼乳母外，另有四个教引嬷嬷；Mammy(Here mammy not means the lady who gives birth to a baby, but a lady who looks after some noble children) Wang is very old: she is not expectd to look after Daiyu well. So,Daiyu's grandmother gave Daiyu to a second-class little page girl named Yingge. Daiyu's arrangement is also like Jia Yingchun who not only has the nursing mother, but also four teaching mothers.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 14:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

Mammy(Here mammy not means the lady who gives birth to a baby, but a lady who looks after some noble children) Wang is very old: she is not expectd to look after Daiyu well. So,Daiyu's grandmother gave Daiyu to a second-class little girl named Polly. Daiyu's arrangement is also like Jia Yingchun who not only has the nursing mother, but also four teaching mummys.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 14:40, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==

除贴身掌管钗钏盥沐两个丫头外，另有四五个洒扫房屋、来往使役的小丫头。当下王嬷嬷与鹦哥陪侍黛玉在碧纱厨内，宝玉乳母李嬷嬷并大丫头名唤袭人的陪侍在外面大床上。
In addition to the two servants who are in charge of jewelry and toiletries, there are four or five little maids who sweep the house and do chores. At the moment Nanny King (Wet Nurse) and polly accompany Black Jade in green gauze room, Precious Jade Merchant’s nammy plumb and big maid Aroma accompany on the big bed outside.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 14:37, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081495==

原来这袭人亦是贾母之婢，本名蕊珠，贾母因溺爱宝玉，恐宝玉之婢不中使，素喜蕊珠心地纯良，遂与宝玉。宝玉因知他本姓花，又曾见旧人诗句有“花气袭人”之句，遂回明贾母，即把蕊珠更名袭人。
This maid Xi Ren, whose real name is Rui Zhu, also belongs to Lady Dowager. Lady Dowager enjoyed Rui Zhu’s purity and kindness then assigned her to Baoyu, for Lady Dowager coddled him and worried that the maids of Baoyu not work well. Baoyu knew her last name was Hua, and saw once poetic sentence “the fragrance of flowers assails noses”, then he talked it with Lady Dowager, and then Rui Zhu was named Xi Ren.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 07:12, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

This maid Xi Ren, whose real name is Rui Zhu, also belongs to Lady Dowager. Lady Dowager enjoyed Rui Zhu’s purity and kindness, then assigned her to serve Jade, for Lady Dowager coddled him and worried that the maids of Jade not professional. Jade knew her last name was Flower, and saw once a poetic sentence “the fragrance of flowers assails noses”, then he talked it with Lady Dowager. And then Rui Zhu was named Xi Ren.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 12:33, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081496==

却说袭人倒有些痴处：伏侍贾母时，心中只有贾母；如今跟了宝玉，心中又只有宝玉了。只因宝玉性情乖僻，每每规谏，见宝玉不听，心中着实忧郁。

However, it is said that Hsi-jen is crazy: when seving Jia's mother, only Jia's mother is in her heart; now serving Jade, there is only Jade in her heart. Because of Jade's perverse temperament, when Jade doesn't listen to her advise, Hsi-jen is really depressed.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 07:11, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

However, Hsi Jen had several simple traits. While in attendance upon dowager lady Chia, in her heart and her eyes there was no one but her venerable ladyship, and her alone; and now in her attendance upon Pao-yue, her heart and her eyes were again full of Pao-yue, and him alone. But as Pao-yue was of a perverse temperament and did not heed her repeated injunctions, she felt at heart exceedingly grieved.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 00:42, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081497==

是晚，宝玉、李嬷嬷已睡了，他见里面黛玉、鹦哥犹未安歇，他自卸了妆，悄悄的进来，笑问：“姑娘怎么还不安歇？”黛玉忙笑让：“姐姐请坐。”

At night, after nurse Li had fallen asleep, seeing that in the inner chambers, Tai-yue and Ying Ko had not as yet retired to rest, she removed her makeup, and with gentle step walked in.
"How is it, miss，" she inquired smiling, "that you have not turned in as yet？"
Tai-yue at once put on a smile. "Sit down, sister, " she rejoined, pressing her to take a seat. --[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 01:37, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

At night, after Master Bao and nurse Li had fallen asleep, seeing that in the inner chambers, Tai-yue and Ying Ko had not as yet retired to rest, she removed her makeup, and with gentle step walked in."How is it, miss，" she inquired smilingly, "that you have not turned in as yet？" Tai-yue at once put on a smile. "Sit down, my dear sister, " she rejoined, leading her to take a seat.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 14:41, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081498==

袭人在床沿上坐了。鹦哥笑道：“林姑娘在这里伤心，自己淌眼抹泪的说：‘今儿才来了，就惹出你们哥儿的病来。倘或摔坏了那玉，岂不是因我之过？’

Hsi-jen then sat by the bedside. Ying Ko ridiculed, "Miss Lin was feeling sad with her tears dropping down today, saying that 'It is the first day that I come here, while I have triggered the relapse of your young master. If his precious jade was truly broken apart, then I am sure to blame."--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 14:29, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

Aroma then sat by the bedside. Brother Parrot ridiculed, "Miss Lin feels sad with her tears dropping down today, saying that 'It is the first day that I come here, while I have triggered the relapse of your young master. If his precious jade is truly broken apart, then I'll be sure to blame."--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 02:45, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学女 202120081499==

所以伤心。我好容易劝好了。”袭人道：“姑娘快别这么着。将来只怕比这更奇怪的笑话儿还有呢。

“She is therefore so sad, and I had a hard time persuading her to stop crying.” Aroma said: “Please don’t look so sad, young lady. There will be more stranger jokes in the future.”--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 02:40, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

“She is therefore so sad, and I had a hard time persuading her to stop crying.” Aroma said: “Please don’t look so sad, my mistress. There will be more stranger jokes in the future.”--[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 10:51, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081500==

若为他这种行状，你多心伤感，只怕你还伤感不了呢。快别多心。”黛玉道：“姐姐们说的，我记着就是了。”

“If you feel sad for his behavior, I’m afraid that you can’t be so. Don’t think too much.” Daiyu said: “I will remember what our sisters has said.” --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 00:23, 20 December 2021 (UTC)
If you are so sad for him, I'm afraid you still can't be sad. Don't worry about it. "Dai Yu said: "Sisters said, I just remember. "--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 11:30, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081501==

又叙了一会，方才安歇。次早起来，省过贾母，因往王夫人处来。正值王夫人与熙凤在一处拆金陵来的书信，又有王夫人的兄嫂处遣来的两个媳妇儿来说话。
After narrating for a while, he rested. Woke up the next morning, saved Jia's mother, because he came to Mrs. Wang. Just as Mrs. Wang and Xifeng were at the same place to tear down the letter from Jinling, and two daughters-in-law sent by Mrs. Wang's brother-in-law to talk.--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 11:28, 27 December 2021 (UTC)
After a little more conversation, we rested. I got up early to pass Jia Mother, because I was going to the king's wife. When Lady Wang and Xifeng in a letter to open jinling, and lady Wang's brother and sister-in-law sent to the two children to talk.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 05:04, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学女 202120081503==

黛玉虽不知原委，探春等却晓得是议论金陵城中居住的薛家姨母之子、表兄薛蟠倚财仗势，打死人命，现在应天府案下审理。如今舅舅王子腾得了信，遣人来告诉这边，意欲唤取进京之意。
Although Daiyu did not know the exact cause, Tanchun and others knew that it was xue Pan, son and cousin of aunt Xue who lived in Jinling city, who killed a man by taking advantage of his wealth and power, and was now being tried by the Tianfu court. Now uncle Prince teng got the letter, send people to tell here, intended to call the meaning of Beijing.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 12:24, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

Although Dai Yu did not know the original commission, Tan Chun and others knew that it was a discussion of Xue Pan, the son of the Xue family's aunt and cousin Xue Pan, who lived in Jinling City, who relied on wealth and power to kill people, and now it should be tried under the Tianfu case. Now that his uncle Prince Teng had received the letter, he sent someone to tell this side, intending to summon the intention of entering the capital.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 12:27, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学女 202120081504==

毕竟怎的，下回分解。

起复——即重新起用被停职或撤职的官员，包括因父母丧停职回家守孝及因被弹劾而遭撤职的官员。
If you want to know what happened, the answer is next time
Reinstatement – Reinstate officials who have been suspended or removed from their posts, including those who have been suspended from their posts for the death of their parents and who have been removed from office for impeachment.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 12:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

After all, I'll break it down next time.

Reinstatement - reinstatement of officials who have been suspended or removed from office, including those who have been removed from office due to the death of their parents and those who have been removed from office due to impeachment.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 12:24, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081505==

邸(dǐ底)报——亦称“邸抄”、“抄报”、“宫门抄”，清代或称“京报”。中国古代官方报纸的通称。

Di Pao -- also known as "Di Copy", "copy newspaper" or "Palace Gate Copy" -- is also known as "Beijing Newspaper" during the Qing Dynasty. The general name of the official newspaper in ancient China.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 12:23, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

Di Bao -- also known as "Di Copy", "copy newspaper" or "Palace Gate Copy" -- is also known as "Beijing Newspaper" during the Qing Dynasty. The general name of the official newspaper in ancient China.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 12:10, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506==

承办者或为地方官府驻京办事机构，或为朝廷。邸报专门抄发诏令、奏章及朝政新闻，以供地方官及时了解。邸：原指战国时各诸侯在都城的客馆，后泛指地方官府驻京办事处。

The undertaker is either the local government office in Beijing or the imperial court. The residence newspaper specially copied and issued imperial edicts, memorials and government news for local officials to understand in time. Di: it used to refer to the guest houses of various princes in the capital during the Warring States period, and later it generally refers to the offices of local officials in Beijing. --[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 12:09, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

The undertaker is either the local government office in Beijing or the imperial court. The "Di" newspaper(a official gazette) specially copied and issued imperial edicts, memorials and government news for local officials to understand in time."Di": Originally referred to the guest hall of the princes in the capital during the Warring States Period, and later generally referred to the Beijing office of the local government. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 14:40, 22 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507==

贱荆——亦称“拙荆”、“山荆”等。谦词。对人称自己的妻子。荆：“荆钗布裙”的省称。

"Jian Jing" ——also known as "Zhuo Jing", "Shan Jing" etc. It's a modest word when a man mention his wife in front of others. "Jing"is a short name for "JingChaiBuQun"(the female have only a thorn for a hairpin and plain cloth for a skirt). --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:36, 19 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

Jian Jing, also known as "Zhuo Jing", "Shan Jing",etc, is a humle term for quoting one's own wife. Jing is an abbreviation for "Jingchaibuqun", that is, a thorn for a hairpin and palin cloth for a skirt.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 06:59, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081508==

形容妇人极为简朴的服饰。语出汉·刘向《列女传》(见《太平御览》卷七一八引)：“梁鸿妻孟光，荆钗布裙。” 荆钗：即以木棍为钗。

Jing, used to describe women's plain, simple and unadorned clothes, is originated from a sentence in the ''Biographies of Exemplary Women'' written by Liu Xiang in the Han Dynasty (see ''Imperial Review under the Reign of Taizong in the Song Dynasty'', Vol.718): "Meng Guang, wife of Liang Hong has only a thorn for a hairpin and plain cloth for a skirt." Jingchai means a thron for a hairpin.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 06:53, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

Jing, used to describe the extremely simple dress of a woman. In Han, Liu Xiang's "Biography of the Female" (see ”Taiping Yu Lan“（Imperial Review under the Reign of Taizong in the Song Dynasty）, vol. 718): "Liang Hong's wife, Meng Guang, was dressed in a woven hairpin and cloth skirt." Jingchai (荆钗): a wooden stick used as a hairpin.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 05:02, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学女 202120081509==

内顾之忧──语出北朝魏·袁翻《安置蠕蠕表》：“且蠕蠕尚存，则高车犹有内顾之忧，未暇窥窬上国；

The Worries of Internal Concern - From Yuan Fan's " Settlement Zoran Policy ", And if Zoran still existed, then Gao Che (a generic term used by the Northern Dynasties for a part of the nomadic tribes in the north of the desert) would still have internal concerns and would not have had the strength to covet the vassal states.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 04:55, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

Internal Concerns – derived from Yuan Fan's "Policy on the Settlement of Ruru". “And if Ruru survived, Gaoche would have internal concerns and would have no time to covet the territory of the Emperor.--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 13:30, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081510==

若蠕蠕全灭，则高车跋扈之计，岂易可知？”(蠕蠕：“柔然”的别称，亦称“芮芮”、“茹茹”。我国古代北方少数民族名。

“If Ruru was annihilated, wasn’t it easy to know the conceited plan of Gaoche?” (“Ruru”, an alternative name for Rouran Khaganate, can also be called “Ruirui” or “Ruru”. The name of an ancient northern ethnic minorities.)--[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 12:53, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

If Ruru was annihilated, would it be easy to know the conceited plan of Gaoche?" (“Ruru”,: an alias for Rouran Khaganate, also known as "Ruirui" and "Ruru". The name of an ancient northern minority group in the region of China.--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 11:44, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081511==

高车：亦称“狄历”、“敕勒”、“铁勒”、“丁零”。我国古代北方少数民族名。)意谓因对家事或国事的顾念而担忧。
Gao Che: also known as Di Li, Cile, Tie Le, Ding Zero. The name of a minority group in the north of China in ancient times). It means to worry about family or national affairs.--[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 11:39, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Gao Che：also named as Di Li, Cile, Tie Le, Ding Zero. It’s the name of the northern Chinese minorities in the ancient time，which means worring about the national or family affairs.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081512==

这里指家庭需要照顾的人或事。

垂花门──旧时较为讲究的四合院二门。门顶如屋顶式样，其四角和前后多有下垂的雕花，故称。

Here these refer to the people or the things needing caring.
Chui Hua door——in ancient time it refers to the decent second gate of a courtyard house.The top of the gate is like the roof，with its four corners、front and back flopping flowers，thus is called Chui Hua door

This refers to the person or thing that family members need to take care of.

Floral-Pendant Gates: It was the second gate of a courtyard house with exquisite decoration in the old days. The top of the door was like a roof, with drooping carvings on the back and front of four corners, so it is called "Floral-Pendant Gates".--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 11:25, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081513==

超手游廊──亦作“超手回廊”、“抄手游廊”。房廊像两手笼入袖筒，两袖成环形状，故称。

Verandah Chao Shou —— also known as "Corridor Chao Shou" and "Cross Hand Verandah". Its gallery looked like a two-handed cage into the sleeves, and the two sleeves formed a ring shape, so it was called "Verandah Chao Shou".--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 07:37, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

Verandah Chao Shou: It was also known as “Corridor Chao Shou” or “Verandah Cross Hand”. Its gallery was similar to a two-handed cage into the two sleeves which formed a ring shape, so it was called “Verandah Chao Shou”. --[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 06:26, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514==

穿山游廊──指与厅房两边山墙门通连的回廊。以其可由山墙门穿行，故称。山：即房屋两侧的山墙。

Chuan Shan You Lang: A veranda or corridor connected with the gable doors on both sides of the hall. People can pass through the corridor after entering into the gable doors, so this kind of corridor is called such a name. Shan: The gable doors on both sides of a house.--[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 13:22, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

Chuan Shan You Lang: It refers to the corridor connected to the door of the wall on either side of the room. People can pass through the corridor after entering into the gable doors, so this kind of corridor is called such a name. Shan: The gable doors on both sides of a house.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 13:33, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515==

“第一个”六句──这是对迎春形象的描写。微丰：稍胖。腮凝新荔：形容腮帮子像荔枝般的红润。

The first six lines - It is a description of Spring Pleasure Merchant's image. Wei Feng: Slightly fat. Sai Ning Xin Li：The cheeks are as red as lychees.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 13:29, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

The first six lines - It is a description of Spring Pleasure Merchant's image. Wei Feng: Slightly fat. Sai Ning Xin Li：The cheeks are as red and shiny as lychees.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 07:21, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081516==

鼻腻鹅脂：形容鼻端像鹅脂般光润。

“第二个”七句──这是对探春形象的描写。削肩：俗称溜肩。

Bi Ni E Zhi: an idiom to describe someone’s tip of nose is as shiny and smooth as goose grease.

“The second” seven lines —— this is a depiction of the look of Seeking-Spring Merchant. Rounded shoulders: commonly known as sloping shoulders --[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 07:18, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

Bi Ni E Zhi: a Chiniese idiom to describe someone’s tip of nose is as shiny and smooth as goose grease.

“The second” seven lines —— this is a depiction of Seeking-Spring Merchant'image. Cuted shoulders: commonly known as sloping shoulders--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 07:00, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学女 202120081517==

倾斜的双肩。古人以为美人肩。

长挑身材：瘦高的身材。鸭蛋脸儿：犹如鸭蛋似的长圆形脸盘。

Sloping shoulders. The ancients considered these to be the shoulders of beauty.

Long, tall figure: a tall, thin figure. Duck egg face: an oblong face like a duck egg.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 06:32, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

Sloping shoulders. The ancient people considered such shoulders as the shoulders of beauty.

Long, tall figure: a tall, thin figure. Duck egg face: an oblong face like a duck egg--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 11:59, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==

俊眼修眉：秀美的眼睛，长长的秀眉。顾盼神飞：左顾右盼，目光炯炯，神采飞扬。文彩精华：光彩照人，精神十足。

Jun Yan Xiu Mei: charming eyes with long and delicate eyebrows. Gu Pan Shen Fei: looking left and right, with shining eyes and soaring spirit. Wen Cai Jing Hua: being radiant and full of energy.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 11:58, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Jun Yan Xiu Mei: beautiful eyes with long and delicate eyebrows. Gu Pan Shen Fei: looking left and right, with shining eyes and soaring spirit. Wen Cai Jing Hua: being radiant and full of energy.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 01:21, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==

见之忘俗：意谓别人见了就会忘了俗气，变得高雅起来。形容探春一身高雅之气。

“第三个”两句──这是对惜春形象的描写。

To see is to forget vulgarity: It means that when others see something or someone will forget the secular atmosphere and become more elegant. In this sentence, it describes Seeking-Spring Merchant has a great elegant temperament."The third" two sentences ─ thses are the description of the image of Cherishing Spring Merchant.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 02:50, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

Jian Zhi Wang Su: It means that others will forget the vulgarity and become elegant when they see it. It is used to describe Seeking-Spring Merchant's elegance.The two sentences containing “ the third” — are the image depiction of Cherishing Spring Merchant.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 12:27, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081520==

形容惜春年纪尚小，身材和容貌都还没有发育成熟。

人参养荣丸──以人参、当归、黄芪、陈皮、白芍、熟地、桂心等配制而成的丸药，主治脾胃气血亏虚等症。

It is used to describe Cherishing Spring Merchant, who is still young and body and appearance are not developed.
Ginseng tonic bolus- A pill made of ginseng, angelica, astragalus, tangerine peel, white paleontology root, rehmannia glutinousa, laurel heart, etc., mainly used for treating deficiency of qi and blood in the spleen and stomach.--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 12:22, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

It is used to depict Cherishing Spring Merchant, who is still in her young age and underdeveloped stature as well as appearance.
Ginseng tonic bolus- a sort of pill composed of ginseng, Angelica sinensis, astragalus, tangerine peel, white paleontology root, rehmannia glutinousa, laurel heart, etc. is mainly used to treat diseases such as deficiency in spleen, stomach, qi as well as blood.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 13:00, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081521==

荣：中医指血脉。养荣丸：似有双关之意：除了保养血脉之意外，还有保养荣誉之意，与薛宝钗的“冷香丸”相对，以寓二人的不同性格。

“Honor” refers to blood vessel in the field of traditional Chinese medicine. Tonic bolus embraces double meaning. Apart from the maintenance of blood, it also boasts the function of maintaining the honor, which is opposite to “Cold Fragrant Pellet” of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass. This is the revelation of different personalities between these two people.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

“Rong” refers to blood vessel in the field of traditional Chinese medicine. Tonic bolus embraces double meanings. Apart from the maintenance of blood vessel, it also boasts the function of maintaining the honor, which is opposite to “Cold Fragrant Pellet” of Precious Hairpin Marshgrass. This is the revelation of different personalities between these two people.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 02:27, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081522==

窄褃(kèn掯)袄──即紧身妖。窄：瘦小。褃：是上衣前后幅两侧接缝部分的名称。

Narrow ken coat ── is a tight quilted jacket.Narrow: thin.Ken: It is the name of the seams on the front and rear sides of the jacket.--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 02:18, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

Narrow Ken coat ── namely tight quilted jacket. Narrow: thin. Ken: the name of the seams on the front and back of the jacket. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 08:50, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081523==

仪门──原指官署大门里的第二道正门。之所以称“仪门”，是因为官员至此门必须整齐仪表。

Etiquette Gate ── originally refers to the second main gate in the main gate of the government office. The reason why it is called "Etiquette Gate" is because the officers must be well-groomed when he arrives. --[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 08:38, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

Etiquette Gate--Originally, it refers to the second main door in the gate of the official office. The reason why it is called "Etiquette Gate" is that officials must be neat and tidy when they arrive at this gate.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 06:30, 23 December 2021 (UTC)

==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学女 202120081524==

《明会典·礼部十七·官员礼》：“新官到任之日……先至神庙祭祀毕，引至仪门前下马，具官服，从中道入。”

The Ming Canon - Rituals XVII - Official Rites: "On the day the new official arrives, he first goes to the temple to offer sacrifice, after which he is led to dismount in front of the ceremonial gate, with his official uniform, and enters from the middle road."--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 06:27, 23 December 2021 (UTC)

The Ming Canon - Rituals XVII - Official Rites: "On the day the new official arrives, he first goes to the temple to offer sacrifice, after which he is led to dismount in front of the ceremonial gate, with his official uniform, and enters from the middle road."--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学）男 202120081525==

又《江宁府志·建制·官署》：“其制大门之内为仪门，仪门内为莅事堂。”后加以引申，大家府第的第二道正门也称仪门。
"Jiangning official records，organizational system，official ": "inside the system gate is the instrument gate, and inside the instrument gate is the visiting hall." Later extended, the second main gate of everyone's house is also called Yimen. --[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 11:12, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

"Jiangning official records，organizational system，government ": "inside the system gate is the etiquette gate, and inside the etiquette gate is the visiting hall." Later extended, the second main gate of mansion is also called etiquette gate.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 09:52, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081526==

鹿顶耳房钻山──这里是指在正房两侧与东西厢房北侧之间建有两座平顶耳房，并在耳房山墙上开门。如此则使正房、东西耳房、东西厢房皆可相通，便于穿行，所以下句说“四通八达”。

Luding Erfang Zuanshan—— it refers to two flat top ear rooms which are situated on the two sides of principal room and northern side of east and west wings and open up the door on the gable. Then it makes a connection between principal room, east and west ear room as well as east and west wings so that it is more convenient for people to pass. It is called “extend in all directions” as described below.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 02:14, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

Luding Erfang Zuanshan——it refers to two flat-top ear rooms which are situated on the two sides of principal room and northern side of east and west wings and open up the door on the gable of ear rooms. Then it makes a connection between principal room, east and west ear rooms as well as east and west wings so that it is very convenient for people to pass. Therefore, it is called “accessible in all directions” as described below.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 07:44, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527==

鹿顶：亦作“盝顶”。即平屋顶。耳房：紧靠正房或厢房两侧并利用其山墙建造的房屋。

Luding: flat roof. Ear room: a room built by using a gable on either side of a principle room or wing-room.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 02:00, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

Lu Ding: this means flat roof. Er Fang: a room built by using the gable on both sides of a principle room or wing-room.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 12:13, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528==

因其位于正房两侧，犹如人的两只耳朵，故称。钻山：指打通房屋两侧的山墙，以与相邻的房屋或回廊相通。

As they are located on both sides of the main house just like people’s ears, they are called “wings”. Zuan Shan: this means breaking through the gables on both sides of the house to connect to adjacent houses and cloisters.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 07:45, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

Because they are located on both sides of the main house just like people’s ears, they are called “wings”. Zuan Shan: this means breaking through the gables on both sides of the house to connect to adjacent houses and cloisters. --[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529==

赤金九龙青地大匾──以赤金涂饰的九条雕龙为边框的黑底大匾。九龙：古代传说龙生九子，性格各异。但说法各异。

The horizontal board, which is decorated with pink gold, night dragon and tuff - the board is black and is made of motifs of dragon and phoenix. The nine dragons: it is said that, in the ancient time, the dragon had nine sons, whose character were totally different. But there were different ideas about it.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 14:02, 19 December 2021 (UTC)
A large plaque with nine dragons painted in red gold on a black background. Nine Dragons: Ancient legend has it that dragons are born with nine sons, each with a different character. However, there are different sayings.--[[User:Wu Yinghong|Wu Yinghong]] ([[User talk:Wu Yinghong|talk]]) 05:36, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学女 202120081530==

明·杨慎《升庵外集·动物一·龙生九子》说：“龙生九子不成龙，各有所好：囚牛，平生好音乐，今胡琴头上刻兽是其遗像；
Ming-Yang Shen's "Sheng'an Waiji - Animals I - The Nine Sons of the Dragon" says: "The nine sons of the dragon were born without becoming dragons, but each had his own interests: the prisoner bull, who was good at music in his life, and the beast carved on the head of the huqin today is his posthumous image.

Yang Shen of Ming Dynasty said in "Sheng an Outside collection · Animal · Long Sheng Jiu Zi" : "Long sheng Jiu Zi is not a dragon, each has his own good points: prisoner ox, good music in his life, the beast carved on the head of Huqin is his portrait; --[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 10:32, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081531==

睚毗，平生好杀，金刀柄上龙吞口是其遗像；嘲风，平生好险，今殿角走兽是其遗像；蒲牢，平生好鸣，今钟上兽纽是其遗像；
Yapi, who was easy to kill, has a portrait of a dragon swallowing mouth on the gold hilt. Scene wind, life good risk, this temple corner beast is its portrait; Pu Lao, life good Ming, this bell on the beast new is its portrait; --[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 10:28, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Yapi, who likes killing, so the image of a dragon swallowing mouth on the gold hilt is its portrait. Chaofeng, who likes being at risk, so the image of the temple corner beast is its portrait; Pulao, who likes chirping, so the image of the bell on the beast new is its portrait.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 11:34, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081532==

狻猊，平生好坐，今佛座狮子是其遗像；霸下，平生好负重，今碑座兽是其遗像；陛犴，平生好讼，今狱门上狮子头是其遗像；
Suan ni likes sitting all its life , it looks alike a lion, which usually appears in the pedestal of Buddha ; Ba xia likes bearing a heavy burden all its life, so its image usually appears under the stone monuments as a stele monster; Bi'an likes lawsuit all its life, so its image usually appears in the cell doors.--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 07:02, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

Suan ni likes sitting all its life , it looks alike a lion, which usually appears in the pedestal of Buddha ; Ba xia likes bearing a heavy burden all its life, so its image usually appears under the stone monuments as a stele monster; Bi'an likes lawsuit all its life, so its image usually appears in the cell doors.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 07:25, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学女 202120081533==

屓屭，平生好文，今碑两旁龙是其遗像；蚩吻，平生好吞，今殿脊兽头是其遗像。”明·焦竑《玉堂丛语·卷一·文学》则说：

The clamshell, life is good literature, today the two sides of the monument dragon is its image; Chi kiss, life is good swallow, today the temple ridge beast head is its image." Ming - Jiao Hong "Yu Tang Congye - Volume 1 - Literature" said.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 07:24, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

The clamshel is good at writing, nowadays the two sides of the monument dragon is its portrait; Chi Zhewen is good at swallowing, nowadays the temple ridge beast head is its portrait." Ming - Jiao Hong "Yu Tang Congye - Volume 1 - Literature" said.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 06:53, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081534==

“俗传龙生九子不成龙，各有所好……一曰赑屭，形似龟，好负重，今石碑下龟趺是也；二曰螭吻，形似兽，性好望，今屋上兽头是也；

“ It is said that the nine sons of dragons are not born into dragons, and each has its own features...One is Bixi shaped like a tortoise, and it is so heavy. It is also a tortoise under the stone tablet; the second is Liwen shaped like a beast, and it is well-known.

"It is said that the nine sons of dragons are not born into dragons, and each has its own features...One is Bi'xi, whose shapes like a tortoise, and it likes carrying heavy things. It is also a tortoise under the stone tablet; The second is Li'wen, whose shapes like a beast, and it is well-known, It often apperas in roof.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:39, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究男 202120081535==

三曰蒲牢，形似龙而小，性好叫吼，今钟上纽是也；四曰狴犴，形似虎，有威力，故立于狱门；五曰饕餮，好饮食，故立于鼎盖；

The third one is Pu'lao, who looks like a dragon but is small and easy to roar, and it often appeared in chime. The fourth was Bi'an, who looks like a tiger and is so powerful that he stand in the door of the prison. The fifth is Tao'tie, like eating food, so stand in tripod cover;--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 11:32, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

The third one is Pu'lao, who looks like a dragon but is small and easy to roar, and it often appeared in chime. The fourth was Bi'an, who looks like a tiger and is so powerful that he stands in the door of the prison. The fifth is Tao'tie, like eating food, so stands in tripod cover;--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 11:47, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536==

六曰，性好水，故立于桥柱；七曰睚毗，性好杀，故立于刀环；八曰金猊，形似狮，性好烟火，故立于香炉；

The sixth is good at water, so it stands on the bridge column; The seventh is called Ya Zi, good at killing, so it stands in the knife ring; The eighth is Jin Ni, like a lion, has a good nature of fireworks, so it stands in the incense burner;--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 11:04, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

The sixth is good at water, so it stands on the bridge column; The seventh is called Ya Zi, --[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 06:47, 27 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别女 202120081537==

九曰椒图，形似螺蚌，性好闭，故立于门铺首。”明·沈德符《万历野获编·卷七·内阁·龙子》又说：“长沙李文正公在阁，孝宗忽下御札，问龙生九子之详。

The ninth is called Jiao Tu, which is shaped like a screw and likes to close its mouth, so it is used as decoration on the door. Shen Defu of the Ming Dynasty, in his book ''Wanli Ye Huo, Vol.7, Cabinet, Longzi,'' also said, "When Duke Li Wenzheng of Changsha was in the cabinet, Emperor Xiaozong suddenly got down to ask the details of the birth of nine longzi.
--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 13:30, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

When Duke Li Wenzheng of Changsha was in the pavilion, Emperor Xiaozong suddenly sent a royal letter and asked about the details of Long Sheng's nine sons.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 07:32, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别女 202120081538==

文正对云：‘其子蒲牢好鸣，今为钟上钮鼻；囚牛好音，今为胡琴头刻兽；睚眦好杀，今为刀剑上吞口；

Wen Zheng said , "his son Pu Lao likes roaring，the dragon shaped animal button on the Hong Zhong is its relic; The Qiu Niu loves music all his life. He often squats on the head of the piano to enjoy the music of plucking strings, so his portrait is engraved on the head of the HuQin; Ya Ci is the second child. He is aggressive and likes killing all his life，and swallow a sword with his mouth.--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 07:29, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Wen Zheng said , "his son Pu Lao likes roaring，and often appears on the bell; Qiu Niu loves music all his life,accordingly, he becomes a decoration for music instrument, such as two-stringed bowed violin (huqin); Ya Ci likes fighting and killing，people see him as the patron saint of weapons, so he often appears on the weapons.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 08:08, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别女 202120081540==

嘲风好险，今为殿阁走兽；狻猊好坐，今为佛座骑象；霸下好负重，今为碑碣石趺；

Chao Feng loves adventure,he now often appears on the corner on the housetop; Suan Ni loves sitting quietly, his image is often found in temples as the mount of Buddha; Bi xi has the power of strength. He loves to carry heavy stuff to show off his magic energy, so under the stele can people see his appearing.--[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 08:12, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Chao Feng loves adventure. It's the small decorative animal on the eaves of the housetop; Suan Ni loves sitting quietly. Its image is often found in temples as the mount of Buddha; Bi xi has the power of strength. He loves to carry heavy stuff to show off his magic energy, so under the stele can people see his appearing.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 11:30, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081541==

狴犴好讼，今为狱户首镇压；屓屭好文，今为碑两旁蜿蜒；蚩吻好吞，今为殿脊兽头。’”

Bi An is eager for justice and righteousness and can distinguish right from wrong. Now they generally stand on both sides of the lobby of the government office to deter those who violate the law and discipline. Bi Xi, which is fond of reading and writing articles, is gentle. And now it’s the animal winding around on both sides of the stele. Chi Wen which has the ability of swallowing fire becomes the beast heads at both ends of the palace roof. --[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 07:24, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Bi An is eager for justice and righteousness and can distinguish right from wrong. Now it generally stands on both sides of the lobby of the government office to deter those who violate the law and discipline. Bi Xi, which is fond of reading and writing articles, is gentle. And now it’s the animal winding around on both sides of the stele. Chi Wen, who has the ability of swallowing fire, becomes the beast heads at both ends of the palace roof. --[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 11:14, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学女 202120081542==

此外，明·陈仁锡《潜确类书》、明·胡侍《真珠船·龙生九子》、清·褚人获《坚瓠十集·龙九子》、清·高士奇《天禄识馀·龙种》，对九龙的名称、性格、用途的说法也各不相同，可见出于民间传说。世人多用作装饰，以示祥瑞。

In addition, the names, characters and uses of the Dragon's nine sons, which can be seen from folklore, are also different in ''Reference Book of Qian Que'' by Chen Renxi of Ming Dynasty, ''Zhenzhu Boat·The Nine Sons of the Dragon'' by Hu Shi of Ming Dynasty,''Jian Hu's Collection-Vol.10·The Nine Sons of the Dragon'' by Chu Renhuo of Qing Dynasty and ''Tian Lu Shi Yu· Dragon Species'' by Gao Shiqi of Qing Dynasty. People often use the images of the Dragon's nine sons as decoration, to show good luck. --[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 03:53, 23 December 2021 (UTC)

In addition, the names, characters and usages of the Dragon's nine sons, which can be seen from folklore, also differ in ''Reference Book of Qian Que'' by Chen Renxi of Ming Dynasty, ''Zhenzhu Boat·The Nine Sons of the Dragon'' by Hu Shi of Ming Dynasty,''Jian Hu's Collection-Vol.10·The Nine Sons of the Dragon'' by Chu Renhuo of Qing Dynasty and ''Tian Lu Shi Yu· Dragon Species'' by Gao Shiqi of Qing Dynasty. People often use the images of the Dragon's nine sons as decoration show auspiciousness.--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 11:18, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081543==

万幾宸(chén辰)翰之宝──此为皇帝印章所刻的文字。万幾：国家纷繁复杂的政务。典出《尚书·虞书·皋陶谟》：“兢兢业业，一日二日万幾。”

The treature of the emporer's notes of handling affairs──This was the inscription on the emperor's seal. Wanji: Country's compliccated government affairs. It was recorded in ''ShangShu·YuShu·The Srategy of Gao Tao'':"Be cautious and practical. There were thousands of complicated government affairs needed to be handled."
[ ''ShangShu·YuShu·The Srategy of Gao Tao'' were important documents that recorded the plans and deliberations of emperors and ministers.]

The treasure of the Emperor's seal and ink imprint──This refers to the inscription on the emperor's seal. Wanji: Country's complicated executive affairs. It was what's recorded in ''Gao Tao Mo, Book Yu, The Book of History'', which is "Be cautious and practical. There were thousands of complicated government affairs needed to be handled."--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 14:31, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别男 202120081544==

孔颖达传云：“幾，微也，言当戒惧万事之微。”意谓尽管政务繁重，也不能忽略任何小事。亦称“万机”。

Kong Yingda said: "Ji, which refers to the slighest thing, meaning that should be aware of the very small things." It means that despite the arduous government affairs, no small things can be ignored. Also known as "Wan Ji".

Kong Yingda's biography said: "The word Ji means that before saying something one should fear the smallest of all things." This means that despite the heavy workload of the government, one should not neglect any small matters. It is also referred to as "ten thousand business".--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 10:00, 26 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081545==

典出《汉书·百官公卿表上》：“相国、丞相皆秦官，金印紫绶，掌丞天子，助理万机。”这里是形容皇帝日理万机，政务繁忙。

The allusion is from ''Han Shu: The List of Hundred Officials（Previous）'': "The Minister of State and the Prime Minister were both Qin officials, with gold seals and purple ribbons, and were in charge of the Emperor and assisted in all affairs." This is a description of the emperor's busy schedule of affairs.--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 09:24, 25 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

The allusion is from Han Shu: The List of Hundred Officials（Previous）: "The Ministers of State and the Prime Ministers were Qin officials, with golden seals and purple ribbons, and they were in charge of the Emperor and assisted in all affairs." Here is the description of the emperor's busy schedule of affairs.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 12:37, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081546==

宸：“北宸”的省称。即北极星。因皇帝上朝坐北朝南，遂为皇帝的代称。翰：本义是羽毛，因古代以羽毛为笔，引申为墨迹(书写的字)。

Chen:is short for "Beichen", that is, the Polaris, which was the alternative name of the Emperors because they sat in the North and faced the South in the imperial court. Han：the original meaning is feather, because in ancient times, feather was used as a pen，and it extended the meanig to ink（written words）.--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 12:29, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

Chen: short for "Beichen", is the Polaris, which was the alternative name of the Emperors because they sat facing the South in the imperial court. Han：the original meaning was feather, because in ancient times, feather was used as a pen，which extended the meaning to ink（written words）.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 08:45, 24 December 2021 (UTC)

==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081547==

宝：这里指皇帝的印章。上古天子、诸侯均以圭璧制印，故称“宝”。唐以后只有帝、后之印可称“宝”。

Bao refers to the emperors' seals. In ancient time, emperors and dukes all had their seals made of Gui and Bi(precious jade),from which it derived the name "Bao". After Tang Dynasty, "Bao" was used exclusively by the emperors and empresses.--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:02, 24 December 2021 (UTC)

Bao refers to the emperors' seals in the article. In ancient time, emperors and dukes all had their seals made of Gui and Bi(precious jade),from which it derived the name "Bao". Since Tang Dynasty, "Bao" was used exclusively to describe the seals of the emperors and empresses.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 09:32, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081548==

“座上”对联──珠玑：本义为珠宝，引申为名贵装饰。昭日月：形容装饰光亮如日月。昭：明亮。

Couplet "above the seat"─ Gem's original meaning is jewelry, which extended for precious decorations. Zhao Riyue means the decorations as bright as the sun and the moon. Zhao means brightness.--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 12:21, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

Couplet "above the seat"─ Gem's original meaning is jewelry, which extended for precious decorations. Zhao Riyue means the decorations as bright as the sun and the moon. Zhao means brightness.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081549==

黼黻(fǔ fú府服)：泛指绣有华美花纹的礼服。《晏子春秋·谏下十五》：“公衣黼黻之衣，素绣之裳，一衣而王采具焉。” 黼：黑白相间的斧形花纹。

Fu Fu (f incarnation fu fu clothing) : refers to embroidered with colorful decorative pattern of the dress. "Yan Zi Spring And Autumn · Jian Next 15" : "I: gongclothes: both clothes, plain embroidered clothes, one dress and Wang CAI yan." I: black and white axe shape.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Fu Fu (f incarnation fu fu clothing) : refers to embroidered with colorful decorative pattern of the dress. "Yan Zi Spring And Autumn · Jian Next 15" : "I: gongclothes: both clothes, plain embroidered clothes, one dress and Wang CAI yan." I: black and white axe shape.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 11:18, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学女 202120081550==

黻：黑与青相间的亚形花纹。焕烟霞：形容绣服放射出如烟如霞的光彩，绚丽多姿。焕：放射光彩。此联形容主宾皆珠光宝气，服饰华丽。

Fu: black and blue sub-pattern. Huan Yanxia: to describe the embroidered clothing radiates the radiance of smoke and clouds. Huan: radiate brilliance. This couplet describes the guests of honor are glittering jewels, gorgeous clothes.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Fu: black and green sub shaped pattern. Huanyanxia: to describe that the embroidered clothes radiate smoke like glow, gorgeous and colorful. Huan: radiate brilliance. This couplet describes the guests of honor are glittering jewels, gorgeous clothes.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 11:30, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别男 202120081551==

汝窑美人觚(gū孤)──出自著名汝窑的一种盛酒器。汝窑：即北宋汝州瓷窑。因其青瓷器皿质量特佳，多为贡品，故名闻天下，后世成为收藏珍品。

Ruyao Beauty Gu-- A wine container from the famous Ruyao. Ruyao: Ruzhou porcelain kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty. Because its celadon ware is of excellent quality and mostly tribute, it is famous all over the world and has become a collection treasure in future generations.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 09:59, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Beauty porcelain（mei ren gu）-- A wine container from the famous Ruyao. Ru kiln: Ruzhou porcelain kiln in the Northern Song Dynasty. Because its celadon ware is of excellent quality and mostly tribute, it is famous all over the world and has become a collection treasure in future generations.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 14:34, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552==

美人觚：因其体长腰细，形似美人，故名。

椅搭──又称“椅披”。是一种长方形织物的椅用装饰品。因搭或披在椅背和椅坐上，故名。

Beauty porcelain（mei ren gu）: so named because of its long waist and resemblance to a beauty.

Chairs（Yi da） - also known as 'chairs'（Yi pi）. This is a rectangular fabric chair upholstery. The name is derived from the fact that it is placed on the back of the chair or on the seat of the chair.

Beauty porcelain ：so named because of its long body and slender waist and resemblance to a beauty.
Chairs（Yi da） - also known as 'chairs'（Yi pi）. This is a rectangular fabric chair upholstery. The name is derived from the fact that it is placed on the back of the chair or on the seat of the chair.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 10:12, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553==

掐牙——是一种装饰性衣服花边。即以锦缎等折叠成细条，镶嵌在衣边上，以为美观。掐：嵌入之意。

Qia Ya— a kind of decorative lace. That is to fold brocade into thin strips and inlay them on the edge of the clothes to look beautiful. Qia: embedded.--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

Qia Ya— a kind of decorative lace. That is to fold brocade into thin strips and inlay them on the edge of the clothes to look beautiful. Qia: it means “embedded”.--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 08:04, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081554==

牙：即“牙子”。器物突出的边沿。

《四书》──即《论语》、《孟子》、《大学》、《中庸》(后两种原为《礼记》中的两篇)。

“Ya”: also called "Ya Zi" in Chinese. It means the protruding edge of an object.

''The Four Books'' includes— ''The Confucian Analects'', ''The Works of Mencius'', ''The Great Learning'', and ''The Doctrine of the Mean'' (the latter two were originally two books from ''The Book of Rites'').--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 12:22, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

''The Four Books'' includes— ''The Confucian Analects'', ''The Works of Mencius'', ''The Great Learning'', and ''The Doctrine of the Mean'' (the latter two were originally two books chosen from ''The Book of Rites'').--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 01:18, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081555==

宋代朱熹选定并定名《四书》，遂成为元、明、清三代科举考试的必读之书。

抹额：原指束在额上的头巾。其起源似乎很早。

During the Song dynasty, Zhu xi chose and named ''Four Books'' which became the required readings in Imperial Competitive Examinations of Yuan dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty.
Mo E: It originally refers to a kerchief tied around the forehead. Its origin seems to be very early.

During the Song dynasty, Chu Hsi chose and named ''Four Books'' which became the required readings in Imperial Competitive Examinations of Yuan dynasty, Ming dynasty, and Qing dynasty.
Headband: It originally refers to a kerchief tied around the forehead. Its origin seems to be very early.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 01:25, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学女 202120081556==

宋·高承《事物纪原·戎容兵械·抹额》引《二仪实录》曰：“禹娶涂山之夕，大风雷电，中有甲卒千人，其不披甲者，以红绡帕抹其头额，云海神来朝。

Song Gaocheng quoted the ''Record of Eryi'' in his book ''Things Documentary-Armed Soldiers-Headband'': “When Yu married the Tushan lady, there was a strong wind, thunder and rain. There were a thousand soldiers in gear, and those who were not wore equipment bound a thin red handkerchiefs on their foreheads in anticipation of the arrival of the god of clouds."--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 01:21, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

Song Gaocheng quoted the ''Record of Eryi'' in his book ''Things Documentary-Armed Soldiers-Headband'': “When Yu married Tu Shan,under the cicumstance of a strong wind, together with thunder and lighting, there were a thousand soldiers who were not equipped with armor but decorated their foreheads with a thin red handkerchiefs in anticipation of the arrival of the god of clouds.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 12:42, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081557==

禹问之，对曰：‘此武士之首服也。’秦始皇至海上，有神朝，皆抹额、绯衫、大口袴。侍卫自此抹额，遂为军容之服。
Yu asked and replied, "this is the surrender of a warrior." When the first emperor of Qin went to the sea, there was the divine Dynasty where people wore red upper garment and loose trousers and decorated with smear. Since then, bodyguards decorated their forehead with smear, which has become a kind of military costume.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 13:17, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

Yu asked, and said, ‘this is the first choice for samurai. When Qin Shihuang arrived at the sea, there was a dynasty, and all the people here wiped their foreheads, crimson shirts, and hakama. Since then, the guards wiped their foreheads and became the uniforms of the military.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 11:04, 22 December 2021 (UTC)

==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学女 202120081558==

可知原为军人的标志。后普及到一般男子，平民以布巾束发，富人用金箍束发，兼为头饰。

箭袖──亦称“箭衣”。

It can be seen that it was originally a symbol of a soldier. Later, it was promoted to be used by ordinary men. Common people used cloth towels to tie their hair, and the rich used gold hoops to tie their hair, which also served as headwear.

Arrow sleeve ─ ─ also known as "arrow suit".

It was a sign of soldiers. Later, it was popularized to ordinary men. Common people tied their hair with cloth towels, and the rich tied their hair with gold hoops, which was also used as headwear.
Arrow Sleeves - also known as "Arrow Suit".--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 05:13, 24 December 2021 (UTC)

==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学女 202120081559==

是一种窄袖长袍。其袖口呈斜切状，朝手背的袖口长，朝手心的袖口短，便于射箭，故名。其斜袖口又形似马蹄，故又称马蹄袖。

It's a kind of robe with narrow sleeves. Its cuffs were in a diagonal cut shape. The cuffs facing the back of the hand are long and the cuffs facing the palm are short, which is convenient for archery, so it is named Arrow Sleeves. Its oblique cuff is also shaped like a horseshoe, so it is also called horseshoe sleeve.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 05:55, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

It's a kind of robe with narrow sleeves. Its cuffs were in diagonal cut shape. The cuffs facing the back of the hand are long and the cuffs facing the palm are short, which is convenient for archery, so it is named Arrow Sleeves. Its oblique cuff is also shaped like horseshoe, so it is also called horseshoe sleeve.--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 14:08, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081561==

后成为一种服式，不射箭的男子也穿。

“倒像”两句──似有双关之意：一者暗指贾宝玉的化身神瑛侍者在太虚幻境用甘露浇灌林黛玉的化身绛珠仙草；

Later, it became a sort of clothing style, which can also worn by men who did not shoot arrows. The two sentences of "inverted image" seem to have a double meaning: one alluded to Jia Baoyu’s incarnation Shenying waiter watering Lin Daiyu’s incarnation—— the celestial grass with nectar in the Tai Xu fantasy.

Later, it became a kind of clothing style, which was also worn by men who did not shoot arrows.
Two sentences of "inverted image" -- there seems to be a pun: one implies that Jia Baoyu's incarnation Shenying waiter watered Lin Daiyu's incarnation Jiangzhu fairy grass with nectar in Taixu fantasy;--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 11:03, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学女 202120081562==

再者隐寓二人心有灵犀一点通，一见锺情。下文贾宝玉说“这个妹妹我曾见过的”、“心里倒像是远别重逢的一般”，其用意同此。

In addition, it implies that the two people share the same heartand fall in love at first sight. Below, Jia Baoyu said that "I have seen this sister" and "I feel like I am far from meeting again". His intention is the same.

==Nadia 202011080004==

请安──这里指的是清代一种见面问好的特殊礼仪：

==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==

男子须在口称“请某某安”的同时，右膝弯曲或跪地(俗称打千)；
A man must bend his right knee or kneel on the ground while showing respect.

==Mariam Toure 2020GBJ002301==

女子则在口称“请某某安”的同时，双手扶左膝，右腿微屈，身体半蹲。

==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==

寄名锁──旧时父母为保佑幼儿长命百岁，让幼儿作僧、道的“寄名”弟子，并在幼儿项下悬挂锁形饰物，谓之“寄名锁”。

==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==

面如傅粉──语本南朝宋·刘义庆《世说新语·容止》：
Face like Fu Powder- Yu Ben Southern Dynasty Song Liu Yiqing", "The New Language of the World" (世說新語容止):
--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 13:33, 28 December 2021 (UTC)

==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==

“何平叔(晏)美姿仪，面至白。
"Uncle He Ping's face is white and beautiful.

==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==

魏明帝疑其傅粉，正夏月，与热汤饼。
Translation : Weiming Siuyuy Full, Full Day, with hot soup.

==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==

既啖，大汗出，以朱衣自拭，色转皎然。”
Both, but sweat, to Zhu Jiazi, the color turned. "

==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==

(皎然：洁白貌。)原指何晏的脸上好像抹了香粉般洁白。
English: (Jiao Ran: pure and white appearance.) The original means, He Yan's face it's like white as powdered.

==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==

引申以泛喻男子姿容洁白秀美。

==Öncü 202121080008==

《西江月》二词──即按照《西江月》词牌填写的两首(也称“阕”)词。

Two words in "Westlake Moon" According，Fill in two poems (also known as "Que") in the poem of "Westlake Moon".--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 04:45, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==

词：原本指歌曲中的文词，后来文词与曲调分离，遂变成文体之一。

Words: Originally refers to the words in the song. Later, the words and the tune were separated and became one of the styles.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 04:33, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

Word: It originally referred to the words in a song. In time, the words and the tune separated and became one of the styles. --[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:14, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==

但仍须按曲填词，于是发展出许多词牌，每个词牌都有字数、句数、韵脚等规定，还有双调、长调、小令之别。

However, it is still necessary to fill in the lyrics according to the tune. So many poems have been developed. Each poem has a word count, sentence count, rhymes and other provisions, as well as the difference between two-tone, long tune, and short meter.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

However, it is still necessary to fill in lyrics according to the tune, so many lyric cards have been developed. Each lyric card has regulations on the number of words, sentences, and rhymes, as well as the differences between double tune, long tune, and short meter. --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:58, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

==Asep Budiman 202111080020==

故作词谓之“填词”，就是按照词牌的规范填写文字，不可越雷池一步。

The preceding phrase "filling in words" means to fill in the words in accordance with the specifications of the words and phrases, and do not go beyond those criteria. --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:56, 21 December 2021 (UTC)

The preceding phrase "filling in words" means to fill in the words in accordance with the specifications of the words and phrases, and do not overstep the prescribed limit. --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:23, 22 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw

==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==

《西江月》就是词牌之一。本书用了不少词牌，以下不再一一注释。

"Westlake Moon" is one of the poems. This book uses a lot of words, so I won’t annotate them one by one below. --[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 08:59, 22 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw

"Westlake Moon" is one of the tune names of poem. There are a lot of tune names in the book, which will not annotated one by one below.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 11:49, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

20211208 homework

2021-12-29T07:55:15Z

Zeng Junlin: /* 曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478 */

Quicklinks: [[Introduction_to_Translation_Studies_2021|Back to course homepage]] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual] [[20210926_homework|Back to all homework webpages overview]] [[20220112_final_exam|final exam page]]

==陈静 Chén Jìng 国别女 202020080595==

说了一会话，临走又送我二两银子。”甄家娘子听了，不觉感伤。一夜无话。

"We talked for a while and give me two bundles of silver when leaving." Hearing this, Mrs. Zhen feel sad and keep silent the whole night.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 07:03, 9 December 2021 (UTC)

“After talking for a while, he gave me two Liang of silver before he left. " The Zhen lady listened and felt sad. I was kept silence all night.

--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 07:08, 9 December 2021 (UTC)

==蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 法语语言文学女 202120081477==

次日，早有雨村遣人送了两封银子、四匹锦缎，答谢甄家娘子；又一封密书与封肃，托他向甄家娘子要那娇杏作二房。封肃喜得眉开眼笑，巴不得去奉承太爷，便在女儿前一力撺掇。

The next day, Jia Yucun armer Gelehrter sent two bundles of silver and four brocades to thank the Zhen lady; Another secret letter to Feng Su Bauer asked him to ask the Zhen lady for the delicate HM Lucky as concubine. Feng Su Bauer was so happy that he was eager to flatter the Lord, so he tried his best to encourage his daughter.
--[[User:Cai Zhufeng|Cai Zhufeng]] ([[User talk:Cai Zhufeng|talk]]) 14:01, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

The next day, Yucun sent two bundles of silver and four brocades to thank Zhen lady; He also sent another secret letter to Feng Su, asking him to ask Jiaoxing, the daughter of Zhen Lady, to be his second wife. Feng Su was so happy that he was eager to flatter the Lord, so he tried his best to encourage his daughter.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 07:56, 5 December 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

==陈惠妮 Chén Huìnī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081479==

当夜用一乘小轿，便把娇杏送进衙内去了。雨村欢喜，自不必言；又封百金赠与封肃，又送甄家娘子许多礼物，令其且自过活，以待访寻女儿下落。

One evening, Jiaoxing was sent to prison by a small sedan carriage. Undoutedbly, Yucun was very pleased and gave hundreds of golds to Fengsu and many gifts to Zhen's wife so that she can live by herself untill her daugther was found.--[[User:Chen Huini|Chen Huini]] ([[User talk:Chen Huini|talk]]) 11:17, 4 December 2021 (UTC)Chen Huini

At that very night he put Jiaoxing in a small sedan-chair and escorted her to the yamen. We don't need to imagine Yucun's satisfaction.He gave Feng Su a hundred pieces of gold and sent Mrs. Zhen many gifts, telling her to take good care of herself that she can find her daughter.--[[User:Chen Xiangqiong|Chen Xiangqiong]] ([[User talk:Chen Xiangqiong|talk]]) 01:11, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==陈湘琼 Chén Xiāngqióng 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081480==

却说娇杏那丫头，便是当年回顾雨村的，因偶然一看，便弄出这段奇缘，也是意想不到之事。谁知他命运两济：不承望自到雨村身边只一年，便生一子；又半载，雨村嫡配忽染疾下世，雨村便将他扶作正室夫人。

Now Jiaoxing was the maid who had looked back at Yucun that year, little dreaming that one casual glance could have such an extraordinary outcome.And so lucky she was that wthin a year of marriage she bore a son; and after another half year Yucun's wife was very ill and died, and then he made Jiaoxing his wife, giving her higher position.

It was said that the girl Jiaoxing, was the one who looked back on Yucun. Because of of a casual glance, they made this fantastic destiny, which was also an unexpected thing. Who knew that his fate was so unpredictable: she was so lucky that wthin a year of marriage she bore a son; and after another half year Yucun's first wife suddenly died of an illness, and then he took Jiaoxing as his principal wife.--[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 14:16, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==陈心怡 Chén Xīnyí 翻译学女 202120081481==

正是：偶因一回顾，便为人上人。原来雨村因那年士隐赠银之后，他于十六日便起身赴京。大比之期，十分得意，中了进士，选入外班，今已升了本县太爷。

Jiaoxing looked back at Jia Yucun out of curiosity, not out of love. But because of such a chance, from a little girl who was serviced, she became a rich lady who serviced others. It turns out that Yucun because of silver given by Shiyin in that year, he left for Beijing on the 16th. He was lucky enough to won the scholar in the great competition and was selected into the outer class, now has been promoted to the county magistrate. --[[User:Chen Xinyi|Chen Xinyi]] ([[User talk:Chen Xinyi|talk]]) 09:33, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Jiaoxing looked back at Jia Yucun out of curiosity, not out of love. And because of such a chance, from a little girl who was serviced, she became a rich lady who serviced others. It turns out that Yucun because of tael given by Shiyin in that year, he left for Beijing on the 16th. He was lucky enough to won the scholar in the great competition and was selected into the outer class, now has been promoted to the county magistrate.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 05:01, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==程杨 Chéng Yáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081482==

虽才干优长，未免贪酷，且恃才侮上，那同寅皆侧目而视。不上一年，便被上司参了一本，说他貌似有才，性实狡猾；又题了一两件徇庇蠹役、交结乡绅之事。
Although he was very capable, he was a bit accustomed to corruption, was too harsh on his subordinates, and relied on his outstanding talents, and showed little respect for his superiors. Those colleagues had deep resentment towards him. In less than a year, he was got goods by his superior and wrote these things into a memorial to the throne, saying that he was cunning by nature, tampering with etiquette privately; and writing down one more things of acting wrongly out of personal considerations of those who harmed the interests of citizens and conluding with the squire.--[[User:Cheng Yang|Cheng Yang]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yang|talk]]) 04:54, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Although capable, he was a bit accustomed to corruption, too harsh on his subordinates, relying on his outstanding talents, showing little respect for his superiors. Those colleagues had deep resentment towards him. In less than a year, he was accused by his superior of his cunning by nature, tampering with etiquette privately and mention of one more things of acting wrongly out of personal considerations of those who harmed the interests of citizens and conluding with the squire.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 07:03, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==丁旋 Dīng Xuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081483==

龙颜大怒，即命革职。部文一到，本府各官无不喜悦。那雨村虽十分惭恨，面上却全无一点怨色，仍是嘻笑自若。

The emperor was extremely irritated and immediately removed him from office. Every official of this department was glad when the dismission information arrived. Though very guilty and regretful, Yucun was smiling as often without any complaint complexion.--[[User:Ding Xuan|Ding Xuan]] ([[User talk:Ding Xuan|talk]]) 02:29, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

The emperor was extremely irritated and immediately removed him from office. Every official of this department was glad when the dismission information arrived. Though very guilty and regretful, Yucun was still smiling without any complainment on the face.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 07:37, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==杜莉娜 Dù Lìnuó 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081484==

交代过了公事，将历年所积的宦囊，并家属人等，送至原籍，安顿妥当了，却自己担风袖月，游览天下胜迹。那日偶又游至维扬地方，闻得今年盐政点的是林如海。

After giving official business,leaving the family his accumulated salary for several years and settled them in native home, he had given up high official positions and riches and travelled the famous historical sites everywhere.One day he arrived Weiyang（Yangzhou，Jiangsu Province，China）by accident and heared about the present salt administration officer was Lin Ruhai Salzinspektor.--[[User:Du Lina|Du Lina]] ([[User talk:Du Lina|talk]]) 04:23, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==付红岩 Fù Hóngyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081485==

这林如海姓林名海，表字如海，乃是前科的探花，今已升兰台寺大夫，本贯姑苏人氏，今钦点为巡盐御史，到任未久。

This Lin Ju-hai's family name was Lin, his name Hai and his style Ju-hai. He had obtained the third place in the previous triennial examination, and had, by this time, already risen to the rank of Director of the Court of Censors. He was a native of Ku Su. He had been recently designated by Imperial appointment as a Censor attached to the Salt Inspectorate, and had arrived at his post only a short time.--[[User:Fu Hongyan|Fu Hongyan]] ([[User talk:Fu Hongyan|talk]]) 15:06, 12 December 2021 (UTC)
This Lin Ju-hai's family name was Lin, his name Hai and his style Ju-hai. He had obtained the third place in the previous triennial examination, and had, by this time, already risen to the rank of Director of the Court of Censors. He was a native of Ku Su. He had been recently named by Imperial appointment a Censor attached to the Salt Inspectorate, and had arrived at his post only a short while back.--[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 13:33, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==付诗雨 Fù Shīyǔ 日语语言文学女 202120081486==

原来这林如海之祖，也曾袭过列侯的，今到如海，业经五世。起初只袭三世，因当今隆恩盛德，额外加恩，至如海之父又袭了一代，到了如海便从科第出身。

In fact, the ancestors of Lin Ju-hai had, from years back, successively inherited the title of Marquis, which rank, by its present descent to Ju-hai, had already been enjoyed by five generations. When first conferred, the hereditary right to the title had been limited to three generations; but of late years, by an act of magnanimous favour and generous beneficence, extraordinary bounty had been superadded; and on the arrival of the succession to the father of Ju-hai, the right had been extended to another degree. It had now descended to Ju-hai, who had, besides this title of nobility, begun his career as a successful graduate. --[[User:Fu Shiyu|Fu Shiyu]] ([[User talk:Fu Shiyu|talk]]) 00:55, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

In fact, one of Lin Ju-hai's ancestors five generations earlier had been ennobled as a marquis. The title was originally limited to three generations, but through an act of magnanimous favour and generous beneficence of the Emperor, it had been extended to Lin Ju-hai’s father. Now Lin Ju-hai himself had been obliged to make his way up through the examination system.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 15:21, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==高蜜 Gāo Mì 翻译学女 202120081487==

虽系世禄之家，却是书香之族。只可惜这林家支庶不盛，人丁有限，虽有几门，却与如海俱是堂族，没甚亲支嫡派的。今如海年已五十，只有一个三岁之子，又于去岁亡了；

It was not only a family of hereditary emoluments, but also of scholars. Unfortunately, the family was not prolific despite the fact that several branches existed. And Lin Ju-hai had cousins but no brothers or sisters. He was fifty already, and his only child had died last year at the age of three.--[[User:Gao Mi|Gao Mi]] ([[User talk:Gao Mi|talk]]) 14:53, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

It was not only a family of hereditary emoluments, but also of scholars. Unfortunately, the family was not prolific despite the fact that several branches existed. And Lin Ju-hai had cousins but no brothers or sisters. Now he was fifty years old, and had only a three-year-old son, who died last year.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 14:13, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

==宫博雅 Gōng Bóyǎ 俄语语言文学女 202120081488==

虽有几房姬妾，奈命中无子，亦无可如何之事。只嫡妻贾氏生得一女，乳名黛玉，年方五岁，夫妻爱之如掌上明珠。见他生得聪明俊秀，也欲使他识几个字，不过假充养子，聊解膝下荒凉之叹。

Although he had several concubines, he was doomed to have no son (to inherit the family line). Only lady Jia, his legal wife, gave birth to a daughter, Mascara Jade Forest, aged five. The couple doted on their daughter like a pearl on the palm of their eyes. Lin Ruhai wanted to teach him to read, because he was smart and handsome, and Lin Ruhai wanted to ease the loneliness of not having a son by pretending to adopt him.--[[User:Gong Boya|Gong Boya]] ([[User talk:Gong Boya|talk]]) 05:55, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

Although he had several concubines, he had no son in his life, and nothing could be done about it. The first wife, Min Merchant, had a daughter named Mascara Jade Forest, who was five years old and loved by the couple as a jewel. Seeing that she looked smart and beautiful, they also wanted to make her literate, but raised her as a son to relieve the sorrow of no son. --[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 13:44, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==何芩 Hé Qín 翻译学女 202120081489==

且说贾雨村在旅店偶感风寒，愈后又因盘费不继，正欲得一个居停之所，以为息肩之地。偶遇两个旧友，认得新盐政，知他正要请一西席教训女儿，遂将雨村荐进衙门去。

The story goes that Rainvillage Merchant caught a cold at the inn and recovered. He wanted to get a place to stay but he could not afford the fee. He met two old friends who got acquainted the new official of salt (Ruhai Forest) and knew that Forest was about to hire a tutor for his daughter, so they recommended Rainvillage to the government office.--[[User:He Qin|He Qin]] ([[User talk:He Qin|talk]]) 13:57, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

The story goes that Jia Yucun caught a cold occasionally at the inn, after recovering his money almost running out. He wanted to get a place to rest himself. He came across two old friends who acquainted with the new official of salt, knowing that he would hire a tutor for his daughter, so they recommended Jia Yucun to the government office.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:39, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==胡舒情 Hú Shūqíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081490==

这女学生年纪幼小，身体又弱，功课不限多寡，其馀不过两个伴读丫鬟，故雨村十分省力，正好养病。看看又是一载有馀，不料女学生之母贾氏夫人一病而亡。

The girl student was young and in poor health, the number of her assignments unnessesary with two servant girls, so Yucun needed less effort and could convalesce. Unexpectedly, the girl's mother, Ms.Jia died of illness after nearly a year.--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 02:06, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

The female pupil was youthful in years and delicate in physique, so that her lessons were irregular. There were only two waiting girls, who remained in attendance during the hours of study, so that Yue-ts'un was spared considerable trouble and had a suitable opportunity to attend to the improvement of his health.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 14:50, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==黄锦云 Huáng Jǐnyún 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081491==

女学生奉侍汤药，守丧尽礼，过于哀痛，素本怯弱，因此旧病复发，有好些时不曾上学。雨村闲居无聊，每当风日晴和，饭后便出来闲步。这一日偶至郊外，意欲赏鉴那村野风光。

The girl was dutiful in her attendance during her mother's sickness, and prepared the medicines. She went into the deepest mourning for her mother's death. Prescribed by the rites, she gave way to such excess of grief that, naturally delicate as she was, broke out anew. Being unable for a considerable time to prosecute her studies, Yue-ts'un lived at leisure and needn't to attend to. Whenever the wind was genial and the sun mild, he would stroll at random after meals.One day by some accident, walking beyond the suburbs he came up to a spot encircled by luxuriant clumps of trees and thick groves of bamboos.--[[User:Huang Jinyun|Huang Jinyun]] ([[User talk:Huang Jinyun|talk]]) 08:07, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

During her mother's sickness, the girl was dutiful in her attendance and prepared the medicines. She went into the deepest mourning for her mother's death. Prescribed by the rites, she gave way to such excess of grief that, naturally delicate as she was, broke out anew. Unable to prosecute her studies for a considerable time, Yue-ts'un lived at leisure and needn't to attend to. Whenever the wind was genial and the sun mild, he would stroll at random after meals. One day by some accident, he walked to the countryside to enjoy the scenery.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 15:12, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==黄逸妍 Huáng Yìyán 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081492==

信步至一山环水漩、茂林修竹之处，隐隐有座庙宇，门巷倾颓，墙垣剥落。有额题曰“智通寺”，门旁又有一副旧破的对联云：身后有馀忘缩手，眼前无路想回头。

He walked to a place with luxuriant woods and bamboo groves which is surrounded by hill and streams.And there was a temple half hidden among the foliage whose entrance was in ruins and walls were crumbling. There was an inscription above the gate: Zhi tong Temple. And flanking the gate was a couplet: Though plenty was left after death, one forgot to hold his hand back. Only at the end of the road does one think of turning on to the right back.--[[User:Huang Yiyan1|Huang Yiyan1]] ([[User talk:Huang Yiyan1|talk]]) 15:04, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

Walking to a place surrounded by mountains, swirling water and lush forests and bamboos, there is a temple. The doors and alleys are falling and the walls are peeling off. There is a forehead titled "Zhitong Temple", and there is an old broken couplet beside the door: I forgot to withdraw my hand behind me, and there is no way to turn back.--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 02:02, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478==

雨村看了，因想道：“这两句文虽甚浅，其意则深。也曾游过些名山大刹，倒不曾见过这话头。其中想必有个翻过筋斗来的，也未可知。

Rainvillage Merchant looked at it and thought, "although these two sentences are very shallow, their meaning is deep. I've also visited some famous mountains and great temples, but I haven't seen this sentence. One of them must have somersaulted, and I don't know.

Rainvillage Merchant looked at it and thought, "although these two sentences are very shallow, their meaning is deep. I've also visited some famous mountains and great temples, but I haven't seen this sentence. One of them must have somersaulted, and I don't know.--[[User:Huang Zhuliang|Huang Zhuliang]] ([[User talk:Huang Zhuliang|talk]]) 03:22, 6 December 2021 (UTC)Huang Zhuliang

==黄柱梁 Huáng Zhùliáng 国别男 202120081493==

何不进去一访？”走入看时，只有一个龙锺老僧在那里煮粥。雨村见了，却不在意。及至问他两句话，那老僧既聋且昏，又齿落舌钝，所答非所问。雨村不耐烦，仍退出来。When Yu Cun walked in, there was only one old monk cooking porridge there. Yucun saw him, but he didn't care. When he asked him a few words, the old monk was deaf and faint, and his tongue was dull. His answer was not what he asked. Yucun was impatient and still withdrew.

When Yu Cun walked in, there was only one old monk cooking porridge there. Yucun saw him, but he didn't care about him. When he asked him a few words, the old monk was deaf and faint, and his tongue was dull. His answer was not what he asked. Yucun was impatient and still withdrew.--[[User:Jin Xiaotong|Jin Xiaotong]] ([[User talk:Jin Xiaotong|talk]]) 13:33, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==金晓童 Jīn Xiǎotóng 202120081494==

意欲到那村肆中沽饮三杯，以助野趣，于是移步行来。刚入肆门，只见座上吃酒之客，有一人起身大笑，接了出来，口内说：“奇遇，奇遇！”
He wanted to go to the village pub for a drink, for the pleasure of nature. So he went on his way. When He entered the pub, he could only see the drinking men in the seats. A man got up and laughed, and then came out, saying repeatedly“What a fortuitous meeting！”

He wanted to go to the village pub for a drink to take the pleasure of nature. So he went on his way. When He entered the pub, he could only see the drinking men in the seats. A man got up and laughed, and then came out, saying repeatedly“What a fortuitous meeting！”--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 14:28, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==邝艳丽 Kuàng Yànl 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081495==

雨村忙看时，此人是都中古董行中贸易，姓冷号子兴的，旧日在都相识。雨村最赞这冷子兴是个有作为大本领的人，这子兴又借雨村斯文之名，故二人最相投契。
Yu Cun was busy looking at this man, who was an antiquary in the city. The man was called Zixing Leng. They met in the city before. Yucun praised him as a competent person, and he borrowed yucun’s name, so these two men are agreeable with each other.--[[User:Kuang Yanli|Kuang Yanli]] ([[User talk:Kuang Yanli|talk]]) 14:25, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Yu Cun was busy looking at this man, who was an antiquary in the city. The man was called Zixing Leng who he’ve met in the city before. Yucun praised him most as a competent person, and he borrowed yucun’s name, so these two men are agreeable with each other.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 01:34, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==李爱璇 Lǐ Àixuán 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081496==

雨村忙亦笑问：“老兄何日到此？弟竟不知。今日偶遇，真奇缘也！”子兴道：“去年岁底到家，今因还要入都，从此顺路找个敝友，说一句话。

"When did you get here?" Yue-ts'un eagerly inquired also smilingly. "I wasn't aware of your arrival. This unexpected meeting is positively a strange piece of good fortune." "I went home," Tzu-hsing replied, "at the end of last year, but now as I return to the capital again, I passed through here on my way to look up a friend of mine and talk some matters over.--[[User:Li Aixuan|Li Aixuan]] ([[User talk:Li Aixuan|talk]]) 01:39, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

"When did you get here?" Yue-ts'un eagerly and smilingly inquired. "I wasn't aware of your arrival. This unexpected meeting is a strange piece of good fortune."
"I went home," Tzu-hsing replied, "about the close of last year, but now as I am again bound to the capital, I passed through here on my way to look up a friend and have a chat.--[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 14:20, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==李瑞洋 Lǐ Ruìyáng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081497==

承他的情，留我多住两日。我也无甚紧事，且盘桓两日，待月半时也就起身了。今日敝友有事，我因闲走到此，不期这样巧遇。”一面说，一面让雨村同席坐了，另整上酒肴来。

He had the kindness to press me to stay with him for a couple of days longer. As I also have no urgent business to attend to, I am tarrying a few days, but purpose starting about the middle of the moon. My friend is busy today, so I roamed listlessly as far as here, never expecting of such a fortunate meeting." While speaking, he invited Yue-ts'un to sit down at the same table, and ordered a fresh supply of wine and eatables. --[[User:Li Ruiyang|Li Ruiyang]] ([[User talk:Li Ruiyang|talk]]) 14:21, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

“He was so kind that he asked me to stay for another couple of days. As I had no other urgencies to attend to, I stayed as he expected. When we chatted til the moon was high above the sky, I got up and left alone. My friend is busy today, so I roamed listlessly as far as here, never expecting such an encounter." While speaking, he invited Yue-ts'un to sit down with him, and ordered a fresh supply of wine and dishes.--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 07:52, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==李姗 Lǐ Shān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081498==

二人闲谈慢饮，叙些别后之事。雨村因问：“近日都中可有新闻没有？”子兴道：“倒没有什么新闻，倒是老先生的贵同宗家出了一件小小的异事。”

Over drinking, they two talked about some plans of the near future after the farewell. Then Yucun asked: Is there anything new in the capital city? Zixing answered，“Nothing new. But in your dignified remote relative's house there is indeed a strange thing.”--[[User:Li Shan|Li Shan]] ([[User talk:Li Shan|talk]]) 14:49, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

They two drank and talked about some plans of the near future after the farewell. Then Yucun asked: "Is there anything new in the capital city?" Zixing answered，“Nothing new. But there happened a strange thing in your dignified remote relative's family.”--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 14:25, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==李双 Lǐ Shuāng 翻译学女 202120081499==

雨村笑道：“弟族中无人在都，何谈及此？”子兴笑道：“你们同姓，岂非一族？”雨村问：“是谁家？”子兴笑道：“荣国贾府中，可也不玷辱老先生的门楣了。”

Rain-Village laughed and said: “No one in my family is in the capital. Why are you talking about this?” Zi Xing said: “You have the same surname, are you not a family?” Rain-Village asked: “Who?” Zi Xing answered: “Merchant’s family. I did not slander the family status of the old gentleman.”--[[User:Li Shuang|Li Shuang]] ([[User talk:Li Shuang|talk]]) 14:20, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Yucun laughed and said: “No one in my family is in the capital. Why are you talking about this?” Zi Xing said: “You have the same surname, aren’t you the same family?” Yucun asked: “Who?” Zi Xing answered: “Merchant’s family. I did not slander the family status of the old gentleman.” --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 23:48, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==李文璇 Lǐ Wénxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081500==

雨村道：“原来是他家。若论起来，寒族人丁却自不少，东汉贾复以来，支派繁盛，各省皆有，谁能逐细考查？若论荣国一支，却是同谱。但他那等荣耀，我们不便去认他，故越发生疏了。”

Yucun said: "It's his house. If discussed explicitly, the people of Han's family were of great quantity since the Eastern Han Dynasty of Jiafu. Their branches were numerous in each province, who can examine one by one? If only discussed the branch of Rongguo, they were the same. But the Rongguo were glorious, it was inconvenient for us to make a connection with them, so we were getting more and more unfamiliar. --[[User:Li Wenxuan|Li Wenxuan]] ([[User talk:Li Wenxuan|talk]]) 08:22, 4 December 2021 (UTC)
Yucun said: "It turned out to be his family. If you talk about it, there are many Han people. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the tribe has been prosperous and there are all provinces. Who can examine it carefully? . But he is so glorious, it is inconvenient for us to recognize him, so we have become more and more estranged."--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 10:02, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==李雯 Lǐ Wén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081501==

子兴叹道：“老先生休这样说。如今的这荣、宁两府，也都萧索了，不比先时的光景。”雨村道：“当日宁、荣两宅人口也极多，如何便萧索了呢？”子兴道：“正是，说来也话长。”
Zi Xing sighed, "Old Mr. Xiu said this. The Rong and Ning residences are now depressed, not as good as the previous conditions." Yucun said: "The Ning and Rong residences had a large population that day. Is it done?" Zi Xing said: "Exactly, it's a long story."--[[User:Li Wen|Li Wen]] ([[User talk:Li Wen|talk]]) 10:01, 6 December 2021 (UTC)
The son sighed: "This is what old Hugh said. The provinces of Rong and Ning are now deserted, not as they were in the past." Rain village way: "that day ning, rong two house population is also very much, how then deserted?" Zi Xing said, "Exactly. It's a long story."--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 14:33, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==李新星 Lǐ Xīnxīng 亚非语言文学女 202120081503==

雨村道：“去岁我到金陵时，因欲游览六朝遗迹，那日进了石头城，从他宅门前经过：街东是宁国府，街西是荣国府，二宅相连，竟将大半条街占了。
Yu Village road: "Last year when I went to Jinling, because I wanted to visit the ruins of the Six Dynasties, that day into the Stone city, from the front of his house through: street east is Ning Guo Fu, street west is Rong Guo Fu, two houses connected, unexpectedly occupied half of the street.--[[User:Li Xinxing|Li Xinxing]] ([[User talk:Li Xinxing|talk]]) 14:32, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

Yucun said, "when I came to Jinling last year, I wanted to visit the ruins of the Six Dynasties. On that day, I entered the stone city and passed in front of his house: Ningguo house is in the east of the street, Rongguo house is in the west, and the two houses are connected, occupying more than half of the street.--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 14:35, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==李怡 Lǐ Yí 法语语言文学女 202120081504==

大门外虽冷落无人，隔着围墙一望，里面厅殿楼阁，也还都峥嵘轩峻；就是后边一带花园里，树木山石，也都还有葱蔚洇润之气：那里像个衰败之家？”
Although deserted outside the gate, across the wall to see the hall hall pavilions, are also lofty xuan Jun; Even in the garden at the back, the trees and rocks were all luxuriant: it did not look at all like a run-down house--[[User:Li Yi|Li Yi]] ([[User talk:Li Yi|talk]]) 01:57, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

Although deserted outside the gate, the hall and pavilions were also lofty and grand seen across the wall.Even in the garden at the back, the trees and rocks were all luxuriant: how did it look like a run-down house?--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 14:14, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘沛婷 Liú Pèitíng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081505==

子兴笑道：“亏你是进士出身，原来不通。古人有言：‘百足之虫，死而不僵。’如今虽说不似先年那样兴盛，较之平常仕宦人家，到底气象不同。

Zi Xing laughed and said, "You are a scholar but know nothing about its cause. There is an ancient saying: ‘old institutions die hard'. Now, though not as prosperous as in previous years, the atmosphere is different from that of ordinary officials.--[[User:Liu Peiting|Liu Peiting]] ([[User talk:Liu Peiting|talk]]) 14:09, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

Zi Xing chuckled, "You are a scholar but know nothing about its cause. As a old saying goes, ‘old institutions die hard’. Now, though not as prosperous as before, the splendor is different from that of ordinary officials.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 10:51, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘胜楠 Liú Shèngnán 翻译学女 202120081506==

如今生齿日繁，事务日盛，主仆上下都是安富尊荣，运筹谋画的竟无一个；那日用排场，又不能将就省俭。如今外面的架子虽没很倒，内囊却也尽上来了。这也是小事。

Their family members are growing, their commitments are increasing, and both masters and servants are used to lavishly controlling it. However no one thinks of the future. They squander money every day and can't save at all. On the surface, they look as noble as before, but their wallets are almost empty. However, this is not their biggest trouble.--[[User:Liu Shengnan|Liu Shengnan]] ([[User talk:Liu Shengnan|talk]]) 10:46, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

In Jia Mansion, there are many people to bring up, and household duties are getting more and more day by day. Masters and servants, from top to bottom, enjoy glory and wealth but no one to plan. They squander money every day and can't save at all. Although they still extravagant on the surface as ever, their wallets are almost empty. and this is not counted the biggest trouble. --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 12:47, 8 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

==刘薇 Liú Wēi 国别女 202120081507==

更有一件大事：谁知这样钟鸣鼎食的人家儿，如今养的儿孙，竟一代不如一代了。”雨村听说，也道：“这样诗礼之家，岂有不善教育之理？别门不知，只说这宁、荣两宅，是最教子有方的，何至如此？”

There is one more important event: Who knows that the children of such a luxurious family, the children and grandchildren are not as good as previous generations." When Yucun heard about it, he also said: "Is there any reason for such a family who always study and pay attention to ethics for generations is bad at education? Although I don't know the situation of other families, it is said that Ning and Rong are the most skillful in teaching children. How did they get to such a situation ? " --[[User:Liu Wei|Liu Wei]] ([[User talk:Liu Wei|talk]]) 15:37, 7 December 2021 (UTC)Liu Wei

That's not the worst thing. Who will know that the children of such a noble clan can be inferior to the last." Hearing about that, Yucun replied:"a family so cultures and versed in etiquette doesn't know the importance of education? Although I don't know other families, I've always heard that these two houses take great efforts to educate their children. How did they fall to such a situation?"--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 12:45, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘晓 Liú Xiǎo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081508==

子兴叹道：“正说的是这两门呢！等我告诉你：当日宁国公是一母同胞弟兄两个。宁公居长，生了两个儿子。宁公死后，长子贾代化袭了官，也养了两个儿子：长子贾敷，八九岁上死了；

"It's these two houses I'm talking about!" Son Prosperity signed, "Just let me tell you: the Duke of Ningguo and the Duke of Rongguo were brothers by the same mother. The Duke of Ningguo, the elder, had two sons, and after his death, his oldest son, Jia daihua, succeeded the title. The elder one of his two sons, Jia Fu, died at the age of eight or nine.--[[User:Liu Xiao|Liu Xiao]] ([[User talk:Liu Xiao|talk]]) 05:14, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

Zi Xing sighed, "I was about to say something about these two families! Let me tell you: the Duke of Rongguo, as he is now called, had two brothers from the same mother. Lord Ning was the eldest brother and had two sons，and after his death, his oldest son, Jia daihua, succeeded the title. The elder one of his two sons, Jia Fu, died at the age of eight or nine.--[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 08:32, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘越 Liú Yuè 亚非语言文学女 202120081509==

只剩了一个次子贾敬，袭了官，如今一味好道，只爱烧丹炼汞，别事一概不管。幸而早年留下一个儿子，名唤贾珍，因他父亲一心想作神仙，把官倒让他袭了。

Only his second son, Honor Merchant, survived and succeeded to his position. Now he devoted himself only to Taoism and alchemy, and did nothing else. Fortunately, in his early years, he had left a son named Treasure Merchant, for his father had set his heart on becoming a fairy, so he succeeded to the position. --[[User:Liu Yue|Liu Yue]] ([[User talk:Liu Yue|talk]]) 07:30, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Only his second son, Honor Merchant, survived and succeeded to his position. Now Honor Merchant devotes himself entirely to Taoism and alchemy, and does nothing else. Fortunately, in his early years, he had left a son named Treasure Merchant. For his father has set his heart on becoming immortal, Treasure Merchant succeeded to the position. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 08:36, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==刘运心 Liú Yùnxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081510==

他父亲又不肯住在家里，只在都中城外，和那些道士们胡羼。这位珍爷也生了一个儿子，今年才十六岁，名叫贾蓉。如今敬老爷不管事了。

His father refused to stay at home, but rather preferred to fool around with those Taoist priests. This Master Treasure Merchant also has a son called Prosperity Merchant, who’s only 16 years old. Nowadays Lord Honor Merchant is no longer in charge. --[[User:Liu Yunxin|Liu Yunxin]] ([[User talk:Liu Yunxin|talk]]) 08:27, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

His father is unwilling to live at home, but prefers to wander around the city to fool around with those Taoist priests. Mr. Zhen also has a son named Jia Rong who is 16 years old. Now, Lord Jing is no longer in charge. --[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 13:42, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==罗安怡 Luó Ānyí 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081511==

这珍爷那里干正事，只一味高乐不了，把那宁国府竟翻过来了，也没有敢来管他的人。再说荣府你听，方才所说异事就出在这里。

Mr. Zhen would not do any proper thing but to amuse himself. Even if he turns the Ning Mansion upside down, no one there dares to stop him. Then I will tell you about Rong Mansion where the strange thing that I just mentioned happened. --[[User:Luo Anyi|Luo Anyi]] ([[User talk:Luo Anyi|talk]]) 13:24, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Mr Zhen would not do any his proper business，but only amuse himself，and though he turned rabbit in Ning Mansion，there is no one who dare to limit him.And I must tell you that some queer things just happen here.--[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 14:04, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==罗曦 Luó Xī 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081512==

自荣公死后，长子贾代善袭了官，娶的是金陵世家史侯的小姐为妻。生了两个儿子：长名贾赦，次名贾政。如今代善早已去世，太夫人尚在。

Since the death of Rong Gong, the elder son Jia Daishan inherited the official title and get merried with the daughter of an aristocratic family in Jinling. They have two sons: the elder son is called Jia She, the second son is called Jia Zheng. Now Jia Daishan has already passed away with his wife still alive. --[[User:Luo Xi|Luo Xi]] ([[User talk:Luo Xi|talk]]) 03:06, 9 December 2021 (UTC)

Since the death of Lord Rong（Jia Yuan), the elder son Jia Daishan inherited the official title and married Shi Hou’s daughter from an aristocratic family in Jinling as his wife. They had two children: the elder son named Jia She, and the second named Jia Zheng. Today Daishan has long passed away, and his wife is still alive.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 02:02, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==马新 Mǎ Xīn 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081513==

长子贾赦袭了官，为人却也中平，也不管理家事。惟有次子贾政，自幼酷喜读书，为人端方正直。祖父锺爱，原要他从科甲出身。

The eldest son, Jia She, inherited the official position from his ancestors but he was not top-notch and did not manage the family affairs as well. Only his second son, Jia Zheng, loved to read since childhood and was a man of upright. His grandfather (Jia Yuan) like him the most and originally planed to let him take the imperial examination before becoming an official.--[[User:Ma Xin|Ma Xin]] ([[User talk:Ma Xin|talk]]) 08:02, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Their elder son Jia She inherited the official title; he was moderate and often remained neutral, and did not manage the family affairs. Only the younger son, Jia Zheng, was fond of studying as a child and was a man of upright so that he was his grandfather’s (Jia Yuan) favorite, and he hoped to make a career for himself through the imperial examinations. --[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 09:05, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

==毛雅文 Máo Yǎwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081514==

不料代善临终遗本一上，皇上怜念先臣，即叫长子袭了官；又问还有几个儿子，立刻引见，又将这政老爷赐了个额外主事职衔，叫他入部习学，如今现已升了员外郎。

Unexpectedly, when Jia Daishan died, he left a valedictory memorial, and the Emperor, out of memory and regard for his former minister, not only conferred the official title on his elder son but also asked what other sons there were and ordered them to be introduced to the palace immediately. The Emperor also bestowed the rank of Assistant Secretary on Jia Zheng, and as an additional favor gave him instructions to familiarize himself with affairs in one of the ministries. He has now risen to the rank of Under-Secretary. --[[User:Mao Yawen|Mao Yawen]] ([[User talk:Mao Yawen|talk]]) 08:40, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Unexpectedly, when Jia Daishan died, he left a valedictory memorial, and the Emperor, out of memory and regard for his former minister, not only conferred the official title on his elder son but also asked what other sons he had and ordered his sons to be introduced to the palace immediately. The Emperor also bestowed the rank of Assistant Secretary on Jia Zheng, and as an additional favor gave him instructions to familiarize himself with affairs in one of the ministries. He has now risen to the rank of Under-Secretary.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 08:53, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==毛优 Máo Yōu 俄语语言文学女 202120081515==

这政老爷的夫人王氏，头胎生的公子名叫贾珠，十四岁进学，后来娶了妻，生了子，不到二十岁，一病就死了。第二胎生了一位小姐，生在大年初一，就奇了。

Mrs. Wang --- the wife of Lord Zheng. Their first child was a son named Jia Zhu, who entered school at the age of fourteen, then married and gave birth to a son, who died of an illness before the age of twenty. The second child was a young girl, born on the first day of the year. It was very surprising.--[[User:Mao You|Mao You]] ([[User talk:Mao You|talk]]) 08:45, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Mrs. Wang --- the wife of Master Merchant gave birth to her first child a boy named Bead Merchant, who entered school at the age of fourteen, then married and got a son. But Jia Zhu died of an illness before the age of twenty. The couple’s second child was a girl born on the first day of the year, which was surprising.--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 06:17, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

==牟一心 Móu Yīxīn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081516==

不想隔了十几年，又生了一位公子，说来更奇：一落胞胎，嘴里便衔下一块五彩晶莹的玉来，还有许多字迹。你道是新闻不是？”

Surprisingly, Mrs Wang gave birth to a boy after more than ten years and it is even strange that the boy was born with a piece of colorful and sparkling crystal with handwritings in his mouth. Isn’t it news?--[[User:Mou Yixin|Mou Yixin]] ([[User talk:Mou Yixin|talk]]) 06:25, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

Surprisingly, after an interval of more than ten years, Mrs Wang gave birth to another male child, and even more miraculously, the boy was born with a piece of colorful and sparkling crystal with handwritings in his mouth. Isn’t it news?--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 09:22, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==彭瑞雪 Péng Ruìxuě 法语语言文学女 202120081517==

雨村笑道：“果然奇异。只怕这人的来历不小。”子兴冷笑道：“万人都这样说，因而他祖母爱如珍宝。那年周岁时，政老爷试他将来的志向，便将世上所有的东西摆了无数叫他抓。

Yu Cun laughed, "It's really strange. I'm afraid this man has a lot of history." Zi Xing laughed coldly and said, "Everyone says so, so his grandmother loves him like a treasure. That year, when he was one year old, Mr. Zheng tested his future aspirations, so he laid out countless things in the world for him to grab.--[[User:Peng Ruixue|Peng Ruixue]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruixue|talk]]) 09:17, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

Yu Cun laughed, "It's really strange. I'm afraid this man has a lot of fame" Zi Xing laughed ruthlessly and said, "Everyone says like this, so his grandmother loves him like a treasure. When Jia Baoyu was one year old, Mr. Zheng wanted to test his future aspirations, so he laid out countless things in the world for him to grab.--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 09:46, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==秦建安 Qín Jiànān 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081518==

谁知他一概不取，伸手只把些脂粉钗环抓来玩弄。那政老爷便不喜欢，说将来不过酒色之徒，因此不甚爱惜。独那太君还是命根子一般。说

But he didn't catch anything, only reach his hand for some powder,hairpin and ring to play. Mr.Zheng was not satisfied with his action,and thought him as a gambler in the future.Therefore, Politic Merchant didn't show his preference toward Precious Jade Merchant,but that Grandma Merchant still regarded him as her treature,and said:--[[User:Qing Jianan|Qing Jianan]] ([[User talk:Qing Jianan|talk]]) 10:01, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

However, he did not take any of them, but only reached his hands out for some powders, hairpins and rings to play with. That action did not please sir Zheng at all, what’s more, sir Zheng said he would be only a voluptuary in the future. Therefore, sir Zheng did not particularly cherish Baoyu, however, lady dowager still loved him as if he was the most preciou treasure.--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 05:28, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==邱婷婷 Qiū Tíngtíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081519==

说来又奇：如今长了十来岁，虽然淘气异常，但聪明乖觉，百个不及他一个。说起孩子话来也奇，他说：‘女儿是水做的骨肉，男子是泥做的骨肉。我见了女儿便清爽，见了男子便觉浊臭逼人。’

Strange to say: now he is ten years old, abnormally naughty , but smart and clever, even better than one hundred other children of his age. What he says is also very odd. Once he said, ‘Girls are made of water, men of mud. He will feel debonaire when he see girls, but when he see men, what he can feel is only squalidness.’--[[User:Qiu Tingting|Qiu Tingting]] ([[User talk:Qiu Tingting|talk]]) 02:34, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

It's strange to notice that now he is ten years more older, abnormally naughty , but smart and clever, even better than one hundred other children of his age. What he says is also very odd. Once he said, "Girls are made of water, men of mud. I qwill feel debonaire when I see girls, but when I see men, what I can feel is only squalidness."--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 13:18, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==饶金盈 Ráo Jīnyíng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081520==

你道好笑不好笑？将来色鬼无疑了。”雨村罕然厉色道：“非也。可惜你们不知道这人的来历，大约政老前辈也错以淫魔色鬼看待了。

"Don't you think it's ridiculous? He or she will be a lecher in the future undoubtedly." Jia Yucun said with a serious look: "Not true. Unfortunately, you do not know the identity of this person, may be the old senior Master Merchant may also wrongly regard him or her as a lewd."--[[User:Rao Jinying|Rao Jinying]] ([[User talk:Rao Jinying|talk]]) 13:14, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

“Have you realized the facetiosity of it? He or she will be beyond all doubt a lecher.” Rain Village Merchant said with stern countenance: “ it is absolutely not the truth. It is a pity that you are insensible of the background of this person and senior Master Merchant may also mistakenly regarded him or her as a lewd demon”.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 00:59, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==石丽青 Shí Lìqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081521==

若非多读书识事，加以致知格物之功、悟道参玄之力者，不能知也。”子兴见他说得这样重大，忙请教其故。雨村道：“天地生人，除大仁大恶，馀者皆无大异。

If someone was not well-read, knowledge-inquiring and truth-enlightening, he or she would be ignorant of it. Son Prosperity believed that Rain Village Merchant took it so seriously that he was bursting with impatience to make clear the reasons within it. Rain Village Merchant asserted: “the universe gives birth to mankind that boasts no differences except the benevolent and the evil.--[[User:Shi Liqing|Shi Liqing]] ([[User talk:Shi Liqing|talk]]) 00:36, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

If someone was not well-read, knowledge-inquired and truth-enlightened, he or she would be ignorant.After seeing that Yucun took it so seriously, Zixing couldn't wait to ask him the reasons.Yucun asserted: “The universe gives birth to mankind that boasts no differences except the benevolent and the evil."--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 09:24, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==孙雅诗 Sūn Yǎshī 外国语言学及应用语言学女 202120081522==

若大仁者则应运而生，大恶者则应劫而生；运生世治，劫生世危。尧、舜、禹、汤、文、武、周、召、孔、孟、董、韩、周、程、朱、张，皆应运而生者；

The great benevolence was born in the time of good fortune,the great evil was born in the time of bad fortune. The former was benefit to the world,the latter was harmful to the world.Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, Zhou, Zhao, Kong, Meng, Dong, Han, Zhou, Cheng, Zhu, Zhang, were all born at the historic moment of good fortune；--[[User:Sun Yashi|Sun Yashi]] ([[User talk:Sun Yashi|talk]]) 09:20, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

If the great benevolence emerged as the times demanded, the great evil was born emerged as the calamity demanded. The former was beneficial to the world, while the latter was harmful to the world. Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, Zhou, Zhao, Kong, Meng, Dong, Han, Zhou, Cheng, Zhu, Zhang, all born emerged as the times demanded.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 12:57, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==王李菲 Wáng Lǐfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081523==

蚩尤、共工、桀、纣、始皇、王莽、曹操、桓温、安禄山、秦桧等，皆应劫而生者。大仁者修治天下，大恶者扰乱天下。清明灵秀，天地之正气，仁者之所秉也；残忍乖僻，天地之邪气，恶者之所秉也。

Chiyou, Gonggong, Jie, Zhou, Shi Huang, Wang Mang, Cao Cao, Huan Wen, An Lushan, and Qin Hui all emerged as the calamity demanded. Great benevolence governs the world, great evil disturbs the world. Be sober-minded and full of ingenuity, absorbing the righteousness of heaven and earth are the characteristics of merciful men; on the contrary, be cruel and eccentric, absorbing the evil of heaven and earth, are the characteristics of wicked men.--[[User:Wang Lifei|Wang Lifei]] ([[User talk:Wang Lifei|talk]]) 12:41, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

Chi You, Gong Gong, Jie, Zhou, Shi Huang, Wang Mang, Cao Cao, Huan Wen, An Lushan and Qin Hui were all born in response to the tribulation. Those who are benevolent cultivate and rule the world, while those who are evil disturb the world. The clear, bright, spiritual and beautiful, the righteousness of heaven and earth, is held by the benevolent; the cruel and perverse, the evil of heaven and earth, is held by the evil.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 06:46, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==王逸凡 Wáng Yìfán 亚非语言文学女 202120081524==

今当祚永运隆之日，太平无为之世，清明灵秀之气所秉者，上自朝廷，下至草野，比比皆是。所馀之秀气漫无所归，遂为甘露，为和风，洽然溉及四海。

In this day of eternal prosperity and peace and inaction, there are many people from the imperial court to the grasses who have been blessed with a clear, bright and spiritual spirit. The remainder of the spirit has no place to return to, so it has become a sweet dew and a harmonious breeze, which has irrigated the four seas.--[[User:Wang Yifan21|Wang Yifan21]] ([[User talk:Wang Yifan21|talk]]) 13:40, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

In this day of eternal prosperity and peace and inaction, people from the imperial court to the grasses who have been blessed with a clear, bright and spiritual spirit are numberless. The remainder of the spirit has no place to return to, so it has become a sweet dew and a harmonious breeze, which has irrigated the four seas.--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 06:58, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==王镇隆 Wáng Zhènlóng 英语语言文学（英美文学）男 202120081525==

彼残忍乖邪之气，不能荡溢于光天化日之下，遂凝结充塞于深沟大壑之中。偶因风荡，或被云摧，略有摇动感发之意，一丝半缕误而逸出者，值灵秀之气适过，正不容邪，邪复妒正，两不相下；

His cruel and evil spirit could not overflow in broad daylight, so it condensed and filled deep ditches and gullies. Occasionally, due to the wind, or being destroyed by clouds, it feels slightly shaken, and a trace of half a wisp of error escapes. It is worthy of the beautiful Qi. If it is suitable, right should not be evil, evil should be jealous of right, and the two are not the same;--[[User:Wang Zhenlong|Wang Zhenlong]] ([[User talk:Wang Zhenlong|talk]]) 06:56, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Its cruel and evil spirit could not overflow in the light of the day, so it condensed and filled in deep ditches and gullies. Occasionally, due to the wind, or being destroyed by clouds, it feels slightly shaken, and a trace or half wisp of error escapes. It is worthy of the beautiful Qi. If it is suitable, the right is incompatible with the evil, and the evil should be jealous of the right, and the two are on the opposite sides.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 08:59, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==卫怡雯 Wèi Yíwén 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081526==

如风水雷电地中既遇，既不能消，又不能让，必致搏击掀发。既然发泄，那邪气亦必赋之于人。假使或男或女偶秉此气而生者，上则不能为仁人为君子，下亦不能为大凶大恶。

Like the wind, water, thunder, lightning meeting each other on the ground, they can neither disappear nor yield, and must fight against and turn over each other. Once it lets off, people will be endowed with evil influence. If men and women were both born on this air by accident, they cannot be up to benevolent gentlemen or down to villains.--[[User:Wei Yiwen|Wei Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Wei Yiwen|talk]]) 12:59, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

If wind, water, thunder, lightning meet each other on the ground, they can neither disappear nor yield, and must fight against and turn over each other. Once the evil air is let off, people will be endowed with it. If men or women are born with this air by accident, they cannot be up to benevolent gentlemen or down to extremely vicious villains.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 09:13, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==魏楚璇 Wèi Chǔxuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081527==

置之千万人之中，其聪俊灵秀之气，则在千万人之上；其乖僻邪谬不近人情之态，又在千万人之下。若生于公侯富贵之家，则为情痴情种；若生于诗书清贫之族，则为逸士高人；纵然生于薄祚寒门，甚至为奇优，为名娼，亦断不至为走卒健仆，甘遭庸夫驱制。

This kind of persons are usually outstanding. Their intelligence and beauty are above thousands of people. And their crankiness and indifference are below them. If they are born in a wealthy royal family, they will be persons of constant love. If they are born in a poor family of intellectual, they will become hermits with extraordinary wisdom. Even though if they are unfortunately born in a humble family, men will be excellent actors and women will be famous prostitutes rather than being servants who have to be used by ordinary people.--[[User:Wei Chuxuan|Wei Chuxuan]] ([[User talk:Wei Chuxuan|talk]]) 09:12, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

This kind of people are usually prominent. Their intelligence and beauty are above millions of people. But their crankiness and indifference are below them. If they are born in a wealthy royal family, they will be people with constant love. If they are born in a poor family of intellectual, they will become hermits with extraordinary wisdom. Even though if they are unfortunately born in a humble family, men will be excellent actors and women will be famous prostitutes rather than being servants who have to be controlled by ordinary people.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 04:15, 9 December 2021 (UTC)

==魏兆妍 Wèi Zhàoyán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081528==

如前之许由、陶潜、阮籍、嵇康、刘伶、王谢二族、顾虎头、陈后主、唐明皇、宋徽宗、刘庭芝、温飞卿、米南宫、石曼卿、柳耆卿、秦少游，近日倪云林、唐伯虎、祝枝山，再如李龟年、黄幡绰、敬新磨、卓文君、红拂、薛涛、崔莺、朝云之流：此皆易地则同之人也。”

Such as the previous generation Xuyou, Taoqian, Ruanji, Jikang, Liuling, the Wang and Xie families, Gu Kaizhi, Chen Shubao, emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty, emperor Huizong of Song Dynasty, Liu Tingzhi, Wen Feiqing, Mi Nangong, Shi Manqing, Liu Qiqing, Qin Shaoyou, and the current generation Ni Yunlin, Tang Bohu, Zhu Zhishan, or the generation like Li Guinian, Huang Fanchuo, Jing Xinmo, Zhuo Wenjun, Hongfu, Xuetao, Cuiying, Zhaoyun: they are the kind of people born when the rectitude and the evil spirits fight each other. This kind of people has both the rectitude and the evil spirits.--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 11:37, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

Like the previous generation: Xuyou, Taoqian, Ruanji, Jikang, Liuling, the Wang and Xie families, Gu Kaizhi, Chen Shubao, emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty, emperor Huizong of Song Dynasty, Liu Tingzhi, Wen Feiqing, Mi Nangong, Shi Manqing, Liu Qiqing, Qin Shaoyou, and the current generation Ni Yunlin, Tang Bohu, Zhu Zhishan, or the generation like Li Guinian, Huang Fanchuo, Jing Xinmo, Zhuo Wenjun, Hongfu, Xuetao, Cuiying, Zhaoyun. Though this kind of people didn’t live in the same period of time, didn’t have the same experience, they had the same ambition.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:58, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==吴婧悦 Wú Jìngyuè 俄语语言文学女 202120081529==

子兴道：“依你说，成则公侯败则贼了？”雨村道：“正是这意。你还不知，我自革职以来，这两年遍游各省，也曾遇见两个异样孩子，所以方才你一说这宝玉，我就猜着了八九也是这一派人物。

Zixing said: “ As you said, the winner will be the duke, and the loser will be the traitor?” Yucun said: “ This is what I was talking about. You didn’t know, that since I was removed from the position, I traveled around all the provinces, and also met some unusual boys, so when you just talked about Baoyu, I guessed that he was such a boy, too.--[[User:Wu Jingyue|Wu Jingyue]] ([[User talk:Wu Jingyue|talk]]) 13:52, 5 December 2021 (UTC)
Zixing said, "according to you, if you become a duke, if you lose, you will become a thief." Yucun said, "that's exactly what you mean. You don't know that I have traveled all over the provinces in the past two years since I was dismissed. I have met two different children, so I guessed that 89 is also a figure of this school.

==吴映红 Wú Yìnghóng 日语语言文学女 202120081530==

不用远说，只这金陵城内钦差金陵省体仁院总裁甄家，你可知道？”子兴道：“谁人不知，这甄府就是贾府老亲，他们两家来往极亲热的。就是我也和他家往来非止一日了。”
Needless to say, it's only Zhen Jia, President of Jinling Provincial Institute of physical benevolence, who is an imperial envoy in Jinling City. Do you know? " Zixing, "no one knows that Zhen's house is the old relative of Jia's house. Their two families are very friendly. Even I have been with him for a long time."

Do you know zhen Jia, president of Qinchai Tiren Academy of Jinling Province in Jinling City?" Zi Xing said, "Who knows? Zhen Fu is jia fu's old man, and the two families are very close to each other. Even I have been with them a long time."--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 11:00, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==肖毅瑶 Xiāo Yìyáo 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081531==

雨村笑道：“去岁我在金陵，也曾有人荐我到甄府处馆。我进去看其光景，谁知他家那等荣贵，却是个富而好礼之家，倒是个难得之馆。但是这个学生虽是启蒙，却比一个举业的还劳神。

Yu Cun smiled and said:”When I was in Jinling last year, someone recommended me to teach at Zhenfu. After I went there, I realized that his family is so prosperous and rich, but they also advocate etiquette, which is very rare. Although this student is a beginner, he is more serious than the examinee who wants to take the scientific examination.”--[[User:Xiao Yiyao|Xiao Yiyao]] ([[User talk:Xiao Yiyao|talk]]) 06:45, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

Yu Cun smiled and said:”When I was in Jinling last year, someone recommended me to teach at Zhen Mansion. After I went there, I realized that his family is so prosperous and rich, but they also advocate etiquette, which is very rare. Although this student is a beginner, he is more serious than the examinee who wants to take the imperial examination.”--[[User:Xie Jiafen|Xie Jiafen]] ([[User talk:Xie Jiafen|talk]]) 07:15, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==谢佳芬 Xiè Jiāfēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081532==

说起来更可笑，他说：‘必得两个女儿陪着我读书，我方能认得字，心上也明白；不然，我心里自己糊涂。’又常对着跟他的小厮们说：‘这“女儿”两个字极尊贵极清净的，比那瑞兽珍禽、奇花异草更觉稀罕尊贵呢。
Even it is more ridiculous when he said: "I must have two daughters to accompany me to study, so that I can recognize words and understand them in my heart; Otherwise, I will be confused. " He often said to his pageboys: "the word" daughter "is very noble and pure, which is more rare and noble than the auspicious animals, rare birds and exotic flowers and plants.

Even it is more ridiculous when he said: "I must have two daughters to accompany me to study, so that I can recognize words and understand them in my heart; Otherwise, I will be confused. " He often said to his pageboys: "the word" daughter "is very noble and pure, which is more rare and noble than the auspicious animals, rare birds and exotic flowers and plants.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 02:56, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==谢庆琳 Xiè Qìnglín 俄语语言文学女 202120081533==

你们这种浊口臭舌，万万不可唐突了这两个字，要紧，要紧！但凡要说的时节，必用净水香茶漱了口方可；设若失错，便要凿牙穿眼的。’其暴虐顽劣，种种异常。

You have such a foul mouth and stinky tongue, you must not be abrupt these two words, important, important! But whenever you say something, you must rinse your mouth with clean water and fragrant tea; if you make a mistake, you will have to cut your teeth through your eyes.' The tyrannical and stubborn, all kinds of abnormalities.--[[User:Xie Qinglin|Xie Qinglin]] ([[User talk:Xie Qinglin|talk]]) 02:55, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

You have such a foul mouth and stinky tongue, you must not be abrupt these two words, important, important! But whenever you say something, you must rinse your mouth with clean water and fragrant tea; if you make a mistake, you will have to cut your teeth through your eyes.' The tyrannical and stubborn, all kinds of abnormalities.--[[User:Xiong Min|Xiong Min]] ([[User talk:Xiong Min|talk]]) 03:15, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==熊敏 Xióng Mǐn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081534==

只放了学进去，见了那些女儿们，其温厚和平，聪敏文雅，竟变了一个样子。因此，他令尊也曾下死笞楚过几次，竟不能改。每打的吃疼不过时，他便姐姐妹妹的乱叫起来。
After class, he saw those daughters, who were gentle, tranquil and clever looking different. Therefore, his father was also beaten for several times. Everytime he was beaten to death, he screamed sisters' names.

After class, he went in and met those daughters changed, who were gentle, peaceful, intelligent and elegant. Therefore, his father was also beaten for several times. Everytime he was beaten to death, he screamed sisters' names.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 14:07, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==徐敏赟 Xú Mǐnyūn 语言智能与跨文化传播研究男 202120081535==

后来听得里面女儿们拿他取笑：‘因何打急了，只管叫姐妹作什么？莫不叫姐妹们去讨情讨饶？你岂不愧些？’他回答的最妙，他说：‘急痛之时，只叫姐姐妹妹字样，或可解疼，也未可知，因叫了一声，果觉疼得好些。

Then he heard his daughters make fun of him: ‘Why do you call a sister when you are in pain? Why not let them beg for forgiveness? Aren't you ashamed?’ He answered it best, saying, ‘In a time of acute pain, if I call the sister's names, which may relieve the pain or not. However, I do felt the pain lessened a little when I called their names'.--[[User:Xu Minyun|Xu Minyun]] ([[User talk:Xu Minyun|talk]]) 13:45, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

Then he heard his daughters make fun of him: "Why do you call sisters when you are in pain? Do you want to let them beg for forgiveness? Aren't you ashamed?" He answered it best, saying, "In a time of acute pain, if I call the sisters, which may relieve the pain or not. However, I do felt the pain lessened a little when I called them".--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 00:34, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜静 Yán Jìng 语言智能与跨文化传播研究女 202120081536==

遂得了秘法，每疼痛之极，便连叫姐妹起来了。’你说可笑不可笑？为他祖母溺爱不明，每因孙辱师责子，我所以辞了馆出来的。这等子弟，必不能守祖、父基业，从师友规劝的。只可惜他家几个好姊妹都是少有的。”

So he got the secret method, and every time he felt the pain, he called his sisters. " Do you also feel ridiculous? And his grandmother doted on him so deeply that I as his teacher was usually insulted and blamed. So I resigned from there. The children like him would not be able to keep the inheritance of their ancestors and follow the advice of their teachers and friends. But it's a pity becasue several sisters in his family are rarely good. "--[[User:Yan Jing|Yan Jing]] ([[User talk:Yan Jing|talk]]) 00:52, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

And his grandmother doted on him so deeply that I was usually insulted and blamed as his teacher. Such child like him would not be able to keep the inheritance of their ancestors and follow the advice of their teachers and friends.--[[User:Yan Lili|Yan Lili]] ([[User talk:Yan Lili|talk]]) 13:54, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜莉莉 Yán Lìlì 国别女 202120081537==

子兴道：“便是贾府中现在三个也不错。政老爷的长女名元春，因贤孝才德，选入宫作女史去了。二小姐乃是赦老爷姨娘所出，名迎春；三小姐政老爷庶出，名探春；四小姐乃宁府珍爷的胞妹，名惜春：

Zi Xing said, "The three girls in Jia's mansion are not bad either. Jia Zheng's eldest daughter was named Yuanchun. Because of her virtue and filial piety, she was chosen to be a female historian in the court. The second lady was born to Jia He'concubine, her name was Yingchun; The third lady was born to Jia Zheng's concubine and was named Tanchun. The fourth lady is the sister of Jia Zhen in Ning' mansion, named Xichun:

“ The three girls in the Jia fumily aren ’ t bad either ,” rejoined Zixing .“ Jia Zheng ’s elder daughter Yuanchun was chosen to be a Lady － Clerk in the palace of the heir apparent because of her goodness , filial piety and talents . The second , Yingchun, is Jia She’s daughter by a concubine . The third Tanchun , is Jia Zheng ’ s daughter a concubine . The fourth , Xichun , is the younger sister of Jia Zhen of the Ning Mansion .--[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 09:43, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==颜子涵 Yán Zǐhán 国别女 202120081538==

因史老夫人极爱孙女，都跟在祖母这边，一处读书，听得个个不错。”雨村道：“更妙在甄家风俗：女儿之名，亦皆从男子之名；不似别人家里，另外用这些‘春’、‘红’、‘香’、‘玉’等艳字。

As dowager lady Shi is so fondly attached to her granddaughters , they come , for the most part , over to their grandmother ’s place to prosecute their studies together , and each one of these girls is , I hear , without a fault . Yucun said, “I prefer the Zhen family ’s way of giving their daughters the same sort of names as boys instead of choosing flowery names meaning Spring , Red , Fragrant or Jade .” --[[User:Yan Zihan|Yan Zihan]] ([[User talk:Yan Zihan|talk]]) 09:37, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

“As dowager lady Shi is so attached to these grand-daughters that she makes them study in the Rong Mansion near her, and I hear good reports of them all.” Yucun said, “I prefer the Zhen family ’s way of giving their daughters the same sort of names as boys instead of choosing flowery names meaning Spring , Red , Fragrant or Jade .” --[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 16:12, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==阳佳颖 Yáng Jiāyǐng 国别女 202120081540==

何得贾府亦落此俗套？”子兴道：“不然。只因现今大小姐是正月初一所生，故名元春，馀者都从了‘春’字；上一排的却也是从弟兄而来的。现有对证：目今你贵东家林公的夫人，即荣府中赦、政二公的胞妹，在家时名字唤贾敏。

But how is it that the Jia family have likewise fallen into this convention？"
"Not so！" said Zixing. "It is simply because the eldest daughter was born on the first day of the first month，that she was called First Spring Merchant；And the rest followed Spring in their names. But the names of the last generation are adopted from those of their brothers；and there is at present an instance in support of this. The wife of your respected employer，Mr. Lin，is the sister of Mr.Pardon Merchant and Mr.Master Merchant，and while at home,she was named Djia Min. --[[User:Yang Jiaying|Yang Jiaying]] ([[User talk:Yang Jiaying|talk]]) 15:54, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

But how could that the Jia family have also become so vulgar in terms of the name of the daughters？"
"It’s not what you think" said Zixing. "It is simply because the eldest daughter was born on the first day of the first month in the lunar year, that she was called First Spring Merchant；And then the rest had Spring in their names too. But all the names of the girls of the last generation are adopted from those of their brothers；and there is at present an instance in support of this. The wife of your respected employer，Mr. Lin，is the sister of Mr.Pardon Merchant and Mr.Master Merchant，and while at home,she was named Djia Min.--[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 03:49, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==杨爱江 Yáng Àijiāng 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081541==

不信时你回去细访可知。”雨村拍手笑道：“是极。我这女学生名叫黛玉，他读书凡‘敏’字，他皆念作‘密’字；写字遇着‘敏’字，亦减一二笔。我心中每每疑惑，今听你说，是为此无疑矣。

If you don’t believe me, check up carefully when you go back. Yucun pounded the table with a laugh. That’s right. The name of my girl student is Daiyu. She always pronounces min as mi and misses one or two strokes when writing. That puzzled me every time. Now I finally understand the reason behind it after hearing your words. --[[User:Yang Aijiang|Yang Aijiang]] ([[User talk:Yang Aijiang|talk]]) 03:30, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

If you don’t believe me, inquire carefully when you go back. Yucun pounded the table and smiled :”That’s right. The name of my girl student is Daiyu. She always pronounces ‘Min’ as ‘Mi’ and misses one or two strokes when writing. That puzzled me every time. Now I finally understand the reason behind it after hearing your words. “--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 03:39, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==杨堃 Yáng Kūn 法语语言文学女 202120081542==

怪道我这女学生言语举止另是一样，不与凡女子相同，度其母不凡，故生此女。今知为荣府之外孙，又不足罕矣。可惜上月其母竟亡故了。”子兴叹道：“老姊妹三个，这是极小的，又没了；

It's strange that my female student's speech and behavior are different. She is not the same as other ordinary ladies. Hence,I guess that her mother is extraordinary and so is she. Since I know that she is the granddaughter of the Mansion of Rongguo,it is not strange that she is such a girl. Unfortunately, her mother died last month. Zixing sighed, "Among the three sisters, she is the youngest and she's also dead."--[[User:Yang Kun|Yang Kun]] ([[User talk:Yang Kun|talk]]) 02:30, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

No wonder that my female student's speech and behavior are unique and she is not the same as other ordinary ladies. That's because her mother is extraordinary and so is she. Since I know that she is the granddaughter of the Mansion of Rongguo,it is not suprising that she is such a girl. Unfortunately, her mother died last month. Zixing sighed, "Among the three sisters, she is the youngest and she's also dead."--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 10:43, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==杨柳青 Yáng Liǔqīng 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081543==

长一辈的姊妹，一个也没了。只看这小一辈的将来的东床何如呢。”雨村道：“正是。方才说政公已有一个衔玉之子，又有长子所遗弱孙，这赦老竟无一个不成？”

There are no elder sisters. Then we just look forward to the younger generation's son-in-laws. Jia Yucun says: That's it. I have just heard that Jia Zheng has a son, Prescious Jade Merchant who is born with a jade. And he has a grandson who is his eldest son's child. Doesn't Jia She have any children?--[[User:Yang Liuqing|Yang Liuqing]] ([[User talk:Yang Liuqing|talk]]) 07:09, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

“No one's left in the elder sisters, Let's just see what will happen to the younger generation's sons-in-law.” “Exactly.”Jia Yucun says:“I've just heard that Master Zheng's got a another son, and his eldest son had given him a grandson. What's the matter with Master Xie? He hasn't had one yet!”--[[User:Ye Weijie|Ye Weijie]] ([[User talk:Ye Weijie|talk]]) 02:40, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

==叶维杰 Yè Wéijié 国别男 202120081544==

子兴道：“政公既有玉儿之后，其妾又生了一个，倒不知其好歹。只眼前现有二子一孙，却不知将来何如。若问那赦老爷，也有一子，名叫贾琏，今已二十多岁了，亲上做亲，娶的是政老爷夫人王氏内侄女，今已娶了四五年。

Zi Xing says:“After Master Zheng had Yu er, his concubine gave birth to another child, don't know whether it is good or bad. Right now they already have two children and a grandson, but not knowing what should do in the future. Master Xie also has a son named Jia Lian, who is about 20 years old now. Jia Lian married Master Zheng's wife Wang's niece, it was an intermarry between their families, and it's been five years now.”

Zi Xing said:" Master Merchant's concubine had given birth to another kid for him after having the son named Precious Jade, and didn't know the kid good or bad. So he only had two sons and a grandson at that time and didn't know the future held. Pardon Merchant also had a son named Romance Merchant, who was about 20 years old. Romance Merchant married Master Merchant's wife Lady King's niece, it was an intermarry between their families, and it's been five years now.”--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 06:35, 12 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

==易扬帆 Yì Yángfān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081545==

这位琏爷身上现捐了个同知，也是不喜正务的；于世路上好机变，言谈去得，所以目今只在乃叔政老爷家住，帮着料理家务。谁知自娶了这位奶奶之后，倒上下无人不称颂他的夫人，琏爷倒退了一舍之地：模样又极标致，言谈又爽利，心机又极深细，竟是个男人万不及一的。”

Romance Merchant had now paid for an official, but he was also uncomfortable with formal affairs; he was so clever and well-spoken in his career that he was currently living in the house of Master Merchant, Romance Merchant's uncle, and helping with the household chores. There is no idea that since marrying this difficult girl, no one in the house would not praise his wife, and that Romance Merchant would not be able to match her: she is so good-looking, so sharp-tongued, and so deep-witted that she is a man's equal."--[[User:Yi Yangfan|Yi Yangfan]] ([[User talk:Yi Yangfan|talk]]) 06:11, 12 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

Romance Merchant had now bought a title as an official, but he was also uncomfortable with formal affairs. He was so clever and well-spoken in his career that he was currently living in the house of Maister Merchant, Romance Merchant's uncle, and helping with the household chores. After he married his wife, everyone praised her, and that made Romance Merchant less popular: she is so good-looking, so sharp-tongued, and so deep-witted that she is a man's equal."--[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 10:49, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==殷慧珍 Yīn Huìzhēn 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081546==

雨村听了，笑道：“可知我言不谬了。你我方才所说的这几个人，只怕都是那正邪两赋而来一路之人，未可知也。”子兴道：“正也罢，邪也罢，只顾算别人家的账，你也吃杯酒才好。”

After hearing this, Yucun smiled and said, “now you know what I said is true. I’m afraid these people we just talked about are probably those who have the temperament of justice and evil.” Zixing said: “whether these people are just or evil, don't just talk about other people's gossip, and also remember to drink more.” --[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 08:36, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

After hearing this, Yucun laughed and said, “now you know what I said is true. I’m afraid these people we just talked about are probably those who have both good and evil temperament.” Zixing said: “It doesn't matter whether these people are good or evil, you should also take a drink rather than only talking about other people's gossip.”--[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:12, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==殷美达 Yīn Měidá 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081547==

雨村道：“只顾说话，就多吃了几杯。”子兴笑道：“说着别人家的闲话，正好下酒，即多吃几杯何妨？”雨村向窗外看道：“天也晚了，仔细关了城，我们慢慢进城再谈，未为不可。”

Yucun said: "I have to drink a few more cups of alcohol because I kept talking all the time". Zixing said while laughing: " Help yourself! Gossip goes well with alcohol". Yucun looked out the window and said:" It's getting dark. We'd better continue our talk after entering the city in case the gate is shut." --[[User:Yin Meida|Yin Meida]] ([[User talk:Yin Meida|talk]]) 09:28, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Rainvillage Merchant said: "I accidentally drink a few more cups of alcohol because I kept talking all the time". Zixing said while laughing: " Enjoy yourself! Gossip goes well with alcohol". Yucun looked out the window and said:" It has been dark. We'd better continue our talk after entering the city in case the gate shuts."--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 09:39, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==尹媛 Yǐn Yuán 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081548==

于是二人起身，算还酒钱。方欲走时，忽听得后面有人叫道：“雨村兄恭喜了！特来报个喜信的。”雨村忙回头看时……要知是谁，且听下回分解。

So they got up and paid for the wine. When they was leaving, he heard someone calling behind: "Congratulations! My friend Rainvillage Merchant. Someone brings a lucky message to you." Rainvillage Merchant looks back at once... Who is it? Please expect the next chapter--[[User:Yin Yuan|Yin Yuan]] ([[User talk:Yin Yuan|talk]]) 05:03, 5 December 2021 (UTC).

So they got up and paid for the wine. When they was leaving, he heard someone calling behind: "Congratulations! My friend Yucun. Someone brings a lucky message to you." Yucun looked back at once... Who was it? Please expect the next chapter.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 14:19, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==詹若萱 Zhān Ruòxuān 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081549==

外班──清代会试考取进士后，留在朝中任官者称“京官”，分发外地任地方官者称“外班”。因新官分发到地方后要候补，按班次任官，故称“外班”。同寅皆侧目而视──同寅：即同僚。

"Wai Ban"(Foreign class) -- After passing the highest imperial examinations in Qing Dynasty, those who stayed in the court as officials were called "jingguan", while those who were dispatched to other places as local officials were called "foreign class". Because the new officers who were distributed to the local needed wait for the appointment, according to the official appointment system established in Qing Dynasty.so it was called "outside the shift". Yin(colleagues)all sidelong glance ── with Yin: namely colleague.--[[User:Zhan Ruoxuan|Zhan Ruoxuan]] ([[User talk:Zhan Ruoxuan|talk]]) 14:17, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Foreign class -- After the qing dynasty imperial examinations, those who stayed in the court as officials were called "jingguan", and those who were dispatched to other places as local officials were called "foreign class". Because the new officer distribution to the local to wait for the officer, according to the shift, so called "outside the shift". With Yin all sidelong eyes and look ── with Yin: namely colleague.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 13:56, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

==张秋怡 Zhāng Qiūyí 亚非语言文学女 202120081550==

典出《尚书·虞书·皋陶谟》：“百僚师师，百工惟时……同寅协恭，和衷哉。”寅时是朝臣上朝之时，故称。侧目而视：斜着眼看。语出《战国策·秦策一》：“(苏秦)将说楚王，路过洛阳。
Code out of "Shang Shu · Yu Shu · Gao Tao Mo" : "100 liao division division, 100 work but time...... Cooperate with Yin and be respectful and sincere." Yin shi is the court when the court, so called. Sidelong: to look sideways. Su Qin will say that the king of Chu is passing by Luoyang.--[[User:Zhang Qiuyi|Zhang Qiuyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Qiuyi|talk]]) 13:12, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

The code is out of ''Shang Shu · Yu Shu · Gao Tao Mo'' : Numerous bureaucrats and teachers work only a hundred hours...... Cooperate with Yin and be respectful and sincere." The Yin time is the court when raised, so it's called. Sidelook: to look sideways. From ''Warring States policy · Qin policy I'':" Su Qin will say that the king of Chu is passing by Luoyang."--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 06:57, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==张扬 Zhāng Yáng 国别男 202120081551==

父母闻之，清宫除道，张乐设饮，郊迎三十里；妻侧目而视，倾耳而听；嫂蛇行匍伏，四拜自跪而谢。”原表示敬畏。引申以表示愤怒或不齿。
When his parents heard of it, they cleared the palace and cleaned the road. Zhang Le set up a repast and welcomed thirty miles away far from home. His wife looked sideways and listened attentively, and his sister-in-law crawled on her knees for thanks." Originally it expressed awe. Extended to express anger or disdain.--[[User:Zhang Yang|Zhang Yang]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yang|talk]]) 06:53, 6 December 2021 (UTC)
When his parents heard of this, they cleared the palace and Zhang Le set up music and drinks to welcome him to the countryside for thirty miles. His wife looked sideways and listened attentively, and his sister-in-law crawled on her knees for thanks." Originally it expressed awe. Extended to express anger or disdain.--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 04:30, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

==张怡然 Zhāng Yírán 俄语语言文学女 202120081552==

维扬──扬州(在今江苏省)的别称。大禹所划分的“九州”之一。典出《尚书·夏书·禹贡》：“淮海惟扬州。”“惟”通“维”。
Wei Yang - an alternative name for Yangzhou (Jiangsu province). It was one of the "nine states" delineated by the Great Yu. The name is derived from ''Shang Shu - Xia Shu - Yu Gong'': "The Huaihai Sea is only Yangzhou." The word "but" is synonymous with "wei".--[[User:Zhang Yiran|Zhang Yiran]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yiran|talk]]) 04:27, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

Dimension Poplar - another name of Yangzhou (in today's Jiangsu Province) which is one of the "Kyushu" divided by Dayu. From the book Shangshu· Xiashu · Yugong "the Huaihai sea Wei Yangzhou” "Wei" is "wei”--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 06:08, 9 December 2021 (UTC)

==钟义菲 Zhōng Yìfēi 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081553==

后人从“惟扬州”截取“惟扬”，又以“维”代“惟”，遂成“维扬”。如北朝周·庾信《哀江南赋》：“淮海维扬，三千馀里。”探花──科举考试中殿试(最高一级考试)一甲第三名(第一名为状元，第二名为榜眼)。

Later generations intercepted "Weiyang" from "weiyangzhou" and replaced "Weiyang" with "Wei", so it became "Weiyang". For example, Yuxin's Fu on mourning the south of the Yangtze River in the Northern Dynasty said, "the Huaihai sea is vast, more than 3000 miles." Tanhua—the third place in the first grade of the palace examination (the highest level examination) (the first place is called Zhuangyuan and the second place is called Bangyan）--[[User:Zhong Yifei|Zhong Yifei]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yifei|talk]]) 09:04, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Later generations intercepted "Weiyang" from "weiyangzhou" and replaced "Weiyang" with "Wei", so it became "Weiyang". For example, Yuxin's Poetic essay on mourning the south of the Yangtze River in the Northern Dynasty said, "the Weiyang city is vast, more than 3000 miles." Tanhua—the third place in the first grade of the palace examination (the highest level examination) (the first place is called Zhuangyuan and the second place is called Bangyan)--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 09:15, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==钟雨露 Zhōng Yǔlù 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081554==

本于唐代的“探花使”，亦称“探花郎”。唐·李淖《秦中岁时记》：“进士杏园初宴，谓之探花宴。差少俊二人为探花使，遍游名园，若它人先折花，二使皆被罚。”

“Tan Huashi” in Tang Dynasty is also called “Tan Hualang”. Li Nao once wrote: “ The newly crowned scholars met in the Apricot Garden to feast with their peers who had been crowned in the same year. This banquet was known as the Flower Search Banquet. Two young and good-looking candidates were chosen to be the flower scouts, and they were asked to visit all the famous gardens and scout for flowers. If someone else took the flowers first, the two flower scouts would be punished with a drink.”--[[User:Zhong Yulu|Zhong Yulu]] ([[User talk:Zhong Yulu|talk]]) 09:06, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

“Tan Huashi” in Tang Dynasty is also called “Tan Hualang”. Li Nao who lived in Tang Dynasty once wrote: “ The newly crowned scholars met in the Apricot Garden to feast with their peers who had been crowned in the same year. This banquet was known as the Flower Search Banquet. Two young and good-looking candidates were chosen to be the flower scouts, and they were asked to visit all the famous gardens and scout for flowers. If someone else took the flowers first, the two flower scouts would be punished with a drink.”--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 01:09, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==周玖 Zhōu Jiǔ 英语语言文学（英美文学）女 202120081555==

又宋·魏泰《东轩笔录》卷六：“进士及第后，例期集一月……又选最年少者二人为探花使，赋诗，世谓之探花郎。”

Wei Tai in Song Dynasty wrote that in his Dongxuan Bilu (Volume Six): “ In the imperial examination, after winning the imperial examination…… Two young scholars at the celebration were elected as Tanhua. And people named them Tanhua boy .”--[[User:Zhou Jiu|Zhou Jiu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Jiu|talk]]) 09:19, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

Wei Tai wrote in his ''Dongxuan Transcript'' (Volume Six) in Song Dynasty : “Participated in and passed the highest imperial examinations ... then the first two youngest scholars at the examination were chosen as Tanhua. And people named them Tanhua boy.”--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 13:55, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==周俊辉 Zhōu Jùnhuī 法语语言文学女 202120081556==

兰台寺大夫──指专管弹劾的御史。兰台是汉朝宫内藏书之所，由御史大夫主管，故后世将御史台别称“兰台”，将御史府别称“兰台寺”，将御史别称“兰台寺大夫”。

Censor of LanTai - refers to imperial historian who is in charge of impeachment. LanTai was the place where the books were stored in the Palace of the Han Dynasty, and was in charge of the imperial historian. The institution where the imperial historian was later called “LanTai”, the palace where the imperial historian lived was called “ LanTai Temple”, and the imperial historian was called “censor of LanTai” by later generations.--[[User:Zhou Junhui|Zhou Junhui]] ([[User talk:Zhou Junhui|talk]]) 13:41, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

Censor of LanTai - refers to imperial historian who is in charge of impeachment. LanTai was the place where the books were stored in the Palace of the Han Dynasty, and was in charge of the imperial historian. Accordimgly, the institution where the imperial historian was later called “LanTai” the palace where the imperial historian lived was called “ LanTai Temple”, and the imperial historian was called “censor of LanTai” by later generations.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 06:46, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

==周巧 Zhōu Qiǎo 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081557==

列侯──古代爵名。在秦称“彻侯”，为二十四级爵位中的最高一级。至汉代为避汉武帝刘彻之讳，改为“通侯”。“通”与“彻”同义，是改名不改义。“通侯”之意是表示受爵者功勋通于王室。
Marquis - Ancient Baron name. In Qin Dynasty, it was called "chehou", which was the highest among twenty-four levels. In the Han Dynasty, in order to avoid the taboo of Liu Che, Emperor of the Han Dynasty, it was changed to "tonghou". "Tong" is synonymous with "Che" in Chinese, in this way changing the name without changing the meaning. "Tong Hou" means that the recipient has done meritorious services to the royal family.--[[User:Zhou Qiao1|Zhou Qiao1]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qiao1|talk]]) 09:17, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

Marquis──Ancient noble name. In Qin Dynasty, it was called "Che Hou", and it was the highest rank among the twenty-four ranks. In the Han Dynasty, it was changed to "Tonghou" to avoid the taboo of Han Wudi Liu Che. "Tong" and "Che" are synonymous, which means changing the name without changing the meaning. "Tong Hou" means that the meritorious deeds of the nobility are passed to the royal family.--[[User:Zhou Qing|Zhou Qing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Qing|talk]]) 15:25, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==周清 Zhōu Qīng 法语语言文学女 202120081558==

后又改为“列侯”，表示序列之意。见《汉书·高帝纪下》颜师古注。清代并无此爵，只是借指侯爵。清代爵位分公、侯、伯、子、男，侯爵为第二等。

Later it was changed to "Liehou", which means sequence. See Yan Shigu's Note in "The Book of Han·Gao Di Jixia". There was no such nobility in the Qing Dynasty, but a reference to the marquis. In the Qing Dynasty, the titles were divided into Gong, Marquis, Bo, Zi, and Male, and Marquis was the second class.

Later it was changed to "Liehou", which means sequence. See Yan Shigu's Note in "Book of Han• Han Gaozu ( the first emperor of Han dynasty)". There was no such nobility in the Qing Dynasty, but a reference to the marquess. In the Qing Dynasty, the titles were divided into Duck,Marquess, Earl, Viscount, Baron and Marquess was the second class.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 16:03, 11 December 2021 (UTC)

==周小雪 Zhōu Xiǎoxuě 日语语言文学女 202120081559==

膝下荒凉──意谓子女稀少，尤无儿子。膝下：这里指子女。因幼儿多倚偎于父母膝旁，故称。《孝经·圣治》：“故亲生之膝下，以养父母日严。”唐玄宗注：“亲犹爱也，膝下谓孩童之时也。”

Desolate at the knees means that there are few children, especially no sons. Under the Knee: it means children. The reason why children are called knee is that children often nestle to their parents' knees.''The Classic of Filial Piety·Shengzhi'' says "the feeling of affection grows up at parents’ knees. As children grow up, they become more and more respectful of their parents." Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty noted: "Be close to your parents and love them. Under the knees is the time of a child.--[[User:Zhou Xiaoxue|Zhou Xiaoxue]] ([[User talk:Zhou Xiaoxue|talk]]) 05:48, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

Desolate below the knee means that there are few children, especially no sons. Knee: it refers to children. The reason why children are called knee is that children mostly lean on their parents' knees. "The Book of Filial Piety·Shengzhi": "Therefore, the days of adoptive parents are strict under the knees of one's own birth." Tang Xuanzong's note: "You are still in love with you, and under your knees is the time of a child."--[[User:Zhu Suzhen|Zhu Suzhen]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suzhen|talk]]) 13:29, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==朱素珍 Zhū Sùzhēn 英语语言文学（语言学）女 202120081561==

荒凉：形容因子女稀少而家庭显得清冷凄凉。西席──古人座次以右(西)为尊，故右席为宾客和塾师之位，坐西面东，故称幕宾和塾师为“西席”或“西宾”。
Desolate: It can be used to describe such a situation: a family becomes desolate because of the small number of children. West Seat ─ ─ the right seat was preferred by the ancients, therefore the right seat belonged to the guests and tutors. Besides, because they sit in the derection of west and face the direcyion of east, so the guests and tutors were called "west seats" or "west guests".

Desolation: it describes the desolation of the family due to the scarcity of children. West Seat -- the ancients took the right (West) seat as the priority, so the right seat was the seat for guests and school teachers.and because they sit in the derection of west and face the direcyion of east.Therefore, it was called "west seats" or "West guests" for the guests and tutors.--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 02:19, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==邹岳丽 Zōu Yuèlí 日语语言文学女 202120081562==

清·梁章钜《称谓录》卷八：“汉明帝尊桓荣以师礼，上幸太常府，令荣坐东面(坐西面东)，设几。故师曰西席。”这里指家庭教师。“身后”一联──身后有馀：是说馀年还很长(“身后”不可解作死后)。
Liang Zhangju, Qing Dynasty, wrote in Volume VIII of 《Appellation records》: "Emperor Mingdi After respected Huan Rong and treated him with teacher courtesy. He once visited Taichang mansion in person, asked Huan Rong to sit in the East, set a table and a walking stick。Therefore, master said it was a seat in the West." Here refers to a tutor.A couplet of "behind you" - there is surplus behind you: it means that the remaining years are still very long ("behind you" cannot be interpreted as after death).--[[User:Zou Yueli|Zou Yueli]] ([[User talk:Zou Yueli|talk]]) 14:23, 4 December 2021 (UTC)

==Nadia 202011080004==

忘缩手：是说不肯收手，还要争名夺利。

==Mahzad Heydarian 玛莎 202021080004==

无路：走投无路。此联是说世人大多只顾眼前，不顾将来，等到走投无路，后悔无及。
No way: desperate. This association means that most people in the world only care about the present, regardless of the future, and wait until they are desperate and regret it.

==Mariam toure 2020GBJ002301==

刹──梵语音译省称，意译为佛塔的柱形尖顶，故又称“佛柱”。

Sha-Sanskrit transliteration provincial name, free translation is the columnar spire of the stupa, so it is also called "Buddha column

==Rouabah Soumaya 202121080001==

引申为佛寺。贾复──东汉南阳冠军(今河南邓州市西北)人，累官至左将军，并封胶东侯。
Extended to Buddhist temple. HiJia Fu——A native of Nanyang Champion of the Eastern Han Dynasty (now northwest of Dengzhou City, Henan Province),he was tired from general to the left and sealed Donghou in Jiao.
--[[User:Muhammad Numan|Muhammad Numan]] ([[User talk:Muhammad Numan|talk]]) 15:54, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==Muhammad Numan 202121080002==

《后汉书》有传。姓贾的成千上万，贾雨村却只拉千年前的贾复为一家，足见其拉大旗作虎皮之势利小人肺肝。There is a biography in the Book of the Later Han Dynasty. There are thousands of people surnamed Jia, but Jia Yucun only manages Jia Fu from a thousand years ago. This shows that the Qiraji banner is a tiger skin.
--[[User:Atta Ur Rahman|Atta Ur Rahman]] ([[User talk:Atta Ur Rahman|talk]]) 14:18, 6 December 2021 (UTC)

==Atta Ur Rahman 202121080003==

百足之虫，死而不僵——典出三国魏·曹冏《六代论》：
A hundred-footed worm does not die - an allusion to Cao Jon's "Six Dynasties" in the Three Kingdoms.
Note:百足之虫，至死不僵，读作 bǎi zú zhī chóng，zhì sǐ bù jiāng 。 It is used as a metaphor for a group or individual with strong power that will not easily collapse for a while. 百足：The name of a worm with a twenty-sectioned torso that can still wriggle after being severed.

==Muhammad Saqib Mehran 202121080004==

“故语曰：‘百足之虫，死而不僵。’扶之者众也。”
The old saying goes:'Hundred-legged worms die but are not stiff.' There are many who support them."

[[File:Example.jpg]]==Zohaib Chand 202121080005==

比喻世家大族虽然衰败，因家底雄厚，依傍众多，表面上仍能维持繁荣景象。
It is a metaphor that despite the decline of the aristocratic family, because of the strong family background and numerous support, it can still maintain its prosperity on the surface.

==Jawad Ahmad 202121080006==

百足：虫名，即马陆。长约一寸，躯干由多节构成，每节有足一对或二对，切断后仍能蠕动。
English: Centipede, Insect name, arthropods. Length, around an inch, Body is composed of multiple sections, each section has one or two pairs of feet, after cutting still can squirm.

==Nizam Uddin 202121080007==

僵：倒下。安富尊荣──语出《孟子·尽心上》：

Stiff: fall down. Safety, wealth and honour──From the words "Mencius·All Your Heart":

==Öncü 202121080008==

“君子居是国也，其君用之，则安富尊荣。”

A gentleman can make people transform their morals, change their customs, Safeguard the country and protect its honor. --[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 13:55, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==Akira Jantarat 202121080009==

原意是君子因辅佐国君功勋卓著而享受荣华富贵。

Agree to be a gentleman，because of the outstanding merits of supporting the monarch and enjoying the glory and wealth.--[[User:AkiraJantarat|AkiraJantarat]] ([[User talk:AkiraJantarat|talk]]) 13:58, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

The original meaning was that gentlemen who made outstanding contributions to assist the monarch enjoyed glory and wealth. --[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 20:06, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

==Benjamin Wellsand 202111080118==

这里反用其意，意谓不劳而获，安享荣华富贵。

The meaning is the opposite here, that for nothing one can enjoy prosperity and wealth.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 20:02, 5 December 2021 (UTC)

The meaning is reversed here, which means to enjoy prosperity and wealth for nothing. --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:22, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

==Asep Budiman 202111080020==

钟鸣鼎食——语出唐·王勃《滕王阁序》：“闾阎扑地，钟鸣鼎食之家。”

Zhongming Ding Shi-Quoting Tang Wang Bo's "Preface to the Pavilion of the King of Teng": "Lu Yan, the home of Zhong Ming Ding Shi." --[[User:Asep Budiman|Asep Budiman]] ([[User talk:Asep Budiman|talk]]) 07:24, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

Zhongming Ding Shi-Speech by Tang Wang Bo "Preface to the Pavilion of the King of Teng": "Lu Yan rushes to the ground, the home of Zhongming Ding Shi." -Ei Mon Kyaw-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:47, 7 December 2021 (UTC)--[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:47, 7 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw

==Ei Mon Kyaw 202111080021==

古代贵族鸣钟列鼎而食。这里借以形容富贵豪华。

The nobles in ancient times sang bells and set out to eat. Here it is used to describe the wealth and luxury.--[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:56, 7 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw--------Ei Mon Kyaw-[[User:EIMONKYAW|EIMONKYAW]] ([[User talk:EIMONKYAW|talk]]) 09:56, 7 December 2021 (UTC)
The ancient nobles rang the bells and set out to eat. To describe wealth and luxury. --[[User:Mahzad Heydarian|Mahzad Heydarian]] ([[User talk:Mahzad Heydarian|talk]]) 07:09, 8 December 2021 (UTC)

The ancient nobility enjoy their meal with tripod as cookware and the bell set as background music, which indicates occupying high positions and great wealth.--[[User:Chen Jing|Chen Jing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jing|talk]]) 14:33, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

20211229 homework

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Zeng Junlin: /* 蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 法语语言文学女 202120081477 */

20211229 homework

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Zeng Junlin: /* 曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478 */

20211222 homework

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Zeng Junlin: /* 蔡珠凤 Cài Zhūfèng 法语语言文学女 202120081477 */

20211222 homework

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Zeng Junlin: /* 曾俊霖 Zēng Jùnlín 国别男 202120081478 */

Hist Trans Theo EN 4

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Zeng Junlin: /* References */

Hist Trans Theo EN 4

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Zeng Junlin: /* 西方翻译理论发展概述 */

Hist Trans Theo EN 3

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Zeng Junlin: /* Chapter 3 An Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——The American Translation Workshop */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|An Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——The American Translation Workshop]]

30 Chapters（0/30)

[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29]] [[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30]] ...

[[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]

===Chapter 3 An Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——The American Translation Workshop===

Zhang Yang, 张扬，Hunan Normal University, China

====Abstract====

====Key words====
American Translation Theory, American Translation Workshop, Ezra Pound

====Introduction====

====Development of the American Translation Workshop in American Universities====
From the study of the history of western translation and its theory in the United States, translation theory can be said to be an ancient discipline. However, in the modern sense of the word "theory", translation theory can also be described as a brand new discipline. As for "ancient", it can be traced back to Cicero (106-43,B.C.) in ancient Rome; As for "brand new", it was not until 1983 that "translation theory" was listed separately as a branch discipline in the bibliography of the international modern language society. In fact, prior to this, modern translation theory can be traced back to the publication of ''The Summary of Translation Theory'' by A.V. Fedorov from former Soviet Union.

Since the 1960s, literary translation has attracted more and more public and academic attention in the United States. A large number of foreign literary works had been translated into English, which has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States. The development is marked by the rise of translation workshops in American universities.

=====New Criticism and The Establishment of the Translation Workshop=====
In the early 1960s, there was no translation workshop in American universities. In the American university system, translation is not listed as a subject. The United States also has no Literary Translators Association and no special translation publications. In 1964, the director of the Writing Workshop from the University of Iowa Paul Engle initiated the translation workshop. He expanded his writing workshop and invited writers from other countries to participate. He also believes that creative activities have no national boundaries. This year, Engle hired a full-time director for the translation workshop and awarded credits for literary translation. The following year, the Ford Foundation funded the University of Texas at Austin to establish the American Translation Research Center. In the same year, the publication of poetry translation ''Modern Poetry in Translation'' was published around the United States. In 1968, the American Center for Translation Studies published the first issue of its official journal ''Delos'', which aims to study the history of translation and translation aesthetics. From then on, literary translation began to occupy a small place in American culture.

In the 1970s, literary translation continued to be developed and recognized. Soon, famous institutions of higher education such as Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Texas and the State University of New York set up translation workshops and courses at various levels, and awarded high-level degrees to students engaged in literary translation, translation history and translation theory. The development of literary translation and research has promoted the establishment of professional organizations for translators. In the late 1970s, the American Literary Translators Association was established and published the academic magazine ''Translation''. A school of thought surrounding the translation workshop came into being. In practice, the school does not talk about theory, but in fact, it consciously or unconsciously used Ivor Armstrong Richards'(1893-1979) reading workshop methods. In order to understand the theoretical guiding ideology followed by the American Translation Workshop, we have to talk about the new criticism, especially the literary theory of I.A. Richards, who is one of its representatives.

The term "New Criticism" usually refers to a literary theory and critical trend of thought, or a method of understanding and interpreting literature. Marked by the works of I.A. Richards and Thomas Stearns Eliot(1888-1965), it began in Britain before the Second World War and later developed in the United States from the 1940s to the 1960s. In 1941, John Crowe Ransom(1888-1974) published the book ''New Criticism''. This monograph summarizes the "new" literary theory and critical thought since the 1920s, from which the term "New Criticism" was established and became popular. The new criticism school is not strictly a school. The writers and theorists known as the new criticism school have many differences in theory, but their common feature is that they oppose the traditional positivist historical and biographical criticism methods and "transfer their interest from poets to poetry". In other words, the new critics advocate paying attention to the text and texture of the works, that is, the words and various rhetorical devices, and making detailed analysis and annotation of literary works through close reading. New criticism has had a great impact on British and American literary criticism. Some people believe that the important contribution of the English world to literary theory almost depends on the new critical theory. Until recently, the new critical theory was still in the field of university teaching in the United States. It also has a great impact on the field of British literature teaching.

One of the founders of the new criticism is I.A. Richards. He is an English literary critic, linguist and poet who tudied at Cambridge University. After that, he successively taught at Cambridge University (1922-1929), Tsinghua University in China (1929-1930) and Harvard University in the United States (1931-1960). He has long been devoted to the study of the relationship between psychology, literature and semantics. His study of literary theory occupies an important position in the history of literary theory in Britain and the United States. His main works include ''Principles of Literary Criticism'' (1924) and ''Science and Poetry'' (1925), which are representative works of new critical theory. In the 1920s, Richards did a famous experiment at Cambridge University. He chose 13 poems without indicating the title and author, and asked the students to express their understanding and experience after reading them. In his book ''Practical Criticism'' (1929), he analyzes the students' errors in understanding and commenting, and tries to find out the causes of the errors. He believes that some errors come from the text itself, while others lie in the readers themselves. Richards' starting point is to separate poetry from the author, readers and society, and students should not have any transcendental influence before reading. He separated the students and the text from the society in order to confirm his view that the text has a "unified" meaning, which can be recognized, and there is also a unified evaluation system. With this system, readers can judge the value of "meaning". This method allows students to read and understand the poem itself.

Richards did this for three purposes. 1) In order to provide a new way to collect materials. 2) Provide a new reading method for those who want to experience poetry. 3) Provide a new educational method to analyze and judge what we hear and witness and develop our understanding ability. The analysis and interpretation methods of the new criticism to the works develop along the direction provided by Richards.

=====Relationships Between the Translation Workshop and the Writing Workshop=====
To find more thoughts about the translation workshop ,we need to find the relationships between the translation workshop and the writing workshop.

1)Both workshops provide a new way to collect materials for western culture. Later translation workshops followed the principles of Richards' reading workshop. For example, Jonas Zdanys, director of the translation workshop at the University of Iowa, claims that, like Richards's experiment, he is proud that he does not let students have any method or theoretical guidance in advance. This approach seems to try to get rid of any constraints in order to investigate the translation process "more genuinly". In this way, Richards tries to find some rules and principles of reading comprehension, so as to make communication more accurate and subtle. The only difference between the translation workshop and Richards' reading workshop is that the translation workshop should find not only the law of reading, but also the law of writing. But in fact, in colleges and universities, whether Richards' writing workshop or later translation workshop, students are allowed to form views consistent with the existing aesthetics and form those prejudices that control the literary mechanism.

2)The purpose of the two workshops is the same, which is to teach students how to appreciate, understand and interpret literary works. Richards emphasized that one should let himself discover the meaning of poetry. This seems to be quite tolerant and democratic. But there is a humanistic thought hidden in it. On the surface, Richards' method seems to allow multiple interpretations of the text. The processing method of reading is also open, personal, and potential anti existing system factors, but it can also strengthen the traditional interpretation. His purpose is to establish a new educational method so that students can "perfectly" understand the text and achieve a unified and correct response. In his workshop, Richards does not pursue different responses, but strives to obtain unified solutions to communication problems, summarizes some laws and principles, and follows them to enable students to form their own understanding and judgment. The starting point of this mode is that the experience of poetry, which can be conveyed accurately and completely to another person, provided that the person is properly educated. Similarly, you can judge poetry, but only if you are trained. After his training, students can appreciate, understand and judge poetry like him.

Jonas Zdanys, head of the Yale translation workshop, also emphasized his appreciation of poetry and student translation. He believes that translation can enable students to further understand poetry, language, aesthetics and interpretation. On the one hand, he hopes that this course can make students interested in theoretical issues in order to explore all aspects of poetry translation theory and practice. On the other hand, he also claimed that in his concluding article on ''The Curriculum Structure of Translation Teaching''(1987), he pointed out that at the end of learning, students have a fuller understanding of the complexity of literature. This shows that he regards translation as a subjective activity and translation as a part of literary understanding and interpretation. This reflects his humanistic view on translation. Zdanys' views on teaching appreciation poetry are quite in tune with the views of the new critics.

Frederic Will is the director of the first translation workshop at the University of Iowa. He regards translation as a form of naming, novel creation and cognition. Although he believes that there is no same objective fact, it is possible to understand the essence, because, according to him, there is a "central common core" in human experience and feelings, which can overcome the fuzziness of language and expose the "external reality". He also believes that a literary work has its internal unified meaning, so it is possible to achieve a common understanding. This is entirely the discipline of the new critics.

Rainer Schulte is a member of the translation workshop at the University of Texas at Dallas. His view further affirmed the purpose of the translation workshop. In his article ''The Misery and the Splendor of Teaching Translation''(1994), he believes that the main purpose of the translation workshop is not to train translators, but to read and understand literary works. He complained that in the past few decades, in the English Department, students did not read works, but read articles and books commenting on works. In this way, students cannot have direct contact with the literary works themselves. On the contrary, the practice of the translation workshop is to enable students to get back to the work itself through the discussion of the work. "Therefore, the translation workshop reactivated the art of interpretation... and reaffirmed the art of reading." He also said that if readers read from the perspective of the translator, they can put themselves in the works and interpret the works in their own mother tongue through the exploration of language. The translator is to transform the act of reading into the act of writing. Therefore, the translation workshop is a means for students to read literary works and find their meaning.

The basic point of understanding and interpreting literature is the exploration of meaning and the view of the essence of language and literature. In this regard, the guiding ideology of the American translation workshop is deeply influenced by the new critics. It can be seen that the purpose of the two workshops is the same, that is, to obtain the author's experience and re-express this experience, that is, to appreciate, understand and interpret poetry. The only difference is that the means of expressing this experience are different. The members of the translation workshop should express themselves in another language. Moreover, literary translation is often regarded as a form of "close reading" in the United States, while some people think it is the most detailed form of "close reading". The purpose of the formal translation workshop and Richards' writing workshop is to perfectly express the experience of this kind of poetry with perfect interpretation or translation. From the perspective of curriculum structure, the teaching method of translation workshop also adopts the method of Richards writing workshop in some aspects.

3）The impact of the translation workshop is consistent with that of the new critical trend of thought. New criticism is an anti-traditional method of interpreting literature. In the United States, translation is also regarded as an aspect of the anti existing system and anti-traditional cultural movement at that time. Many contemporary American poets actively translate foreign works as a means to oppose traditional literary norms, domestic and foreign policies against politics, and even against the whole western society. For a time, translation became popular in the United States, with a large number of people and great influence, forming a climax in the history of American translation.

=====Richards' Further Translation Teaching Activities=====
Richards is not only a pioneer in holding a writing workshop, but also a pioneer in holding a translation workshop. His translation teaching activities can be regarded as the continuation of his literary criticism activities.

Richards' exploration of meaning also goes deep into the field of translation. In other words, he tries to explain his theory of meaning through the study of translation. In 1953, he published an article entitled ''Towards a Theory of Translating''. He deeply feels the complexity of meaning through the comparison between the original and the translation. He realized that understanding meaning involves too many aspects to be comprehensive. In ''Towards a Theory of Translating'', he uses "purpose" to limit the level of understanding meaning. He proposed that if the translator has the same purpose, he can find an appropriate method to determine meaning. The essence of Richards' theory has not changed. He still wants to achieve the understanding of "unity" from the text. On the one hand, he stressed that "translation is perhaps the most complex event since the dawn of the world"; On the other hand, he believes that translators with appropriate education and practice can obtain appropriate methods to correctly understand the original work. Therefore, Richards' view of meaning has basically not changed, but he is more aware of the complexity of meaning. He insists that it is possible to achieve a consistent and correct understanding after appropriate training, which is the purpose of the translation workshop. Richards believes that translation theory is not only to make people who use different languages better understand each other, but also to better understand translation itself and understand meaning (translation serves to understand meaning). In other words, in the literary theory of new criticism, translation is only one aspect of understanding and interpretation. This is exactly the purpose of the translation workshop advocated by Zdanys.

In general, the members of the translation workshop openly claim to oppose the constraints of any theory and place one-sided emphasis on practice. Although they also talk about their feelings of literary appreciation and interpretation, as well as various views on translation, they are still some personal experience and experiences, and can not form any systematic theory. Their research methods basically remain within the scope of traditional language and literature. Therefore, they make little contribution to the construction of contemporary translation theory, but have a great impact on translation practice. This is also Ezra Pound's translation activities and his translation ideas.

====Translations Thoughts of Ezra Pound——Leading Exponent of American Translation Workshop====
Ezra Pound(1885-1972), an American poet, literary critic, and the main representative of new critical and Imagist poetry, has made an important contribution to the development of modern British and American literature. He was born in Idaho and studied at the University of Pennsylvania at the age of 16. He transferred to Hamilton University in 1903. He returned to the University of Pennsylvania in 1905 to study Roman language and literature. He received a master's degree in 1906 and has extensive language knowledge. In September 1908, he went to England, joined a small circle centered on the poet Yeats, met a group of writers and poets, and became the leader of London modernist poets. He called himself and his friends Imagist poets. In 1914, he compiled the first volume of ''Selected Poems of Imagism''. Soon, he was keen on the activities of vortex school and broke away from Imagism. He helped Joyce, Eliot, Hemingway and other writers and had been living in Italy from 1924 to 1944. During the Second World War, he publicized fascism. After the war, he was accused of treason and sent to Washington for trial. Later, he was sent to a mental hospital because he was determined to be insane. At last, he was allowed to return to Italy in 1958.

Pound published ''Ecstasy'' and ''People'' in London in 1909. His speeches in London were also compiled into a collection, ''The Spirit of Romance'', which was published in 1910. In 1915, he published an English translation of the ancient Chinese poem ''China'' (also translated as ''Huaxia''). From 1916 to 1917, he translated Japanese drama. Pound's main poem is long, which was published in batches in the form of "chapters" from 1917 to 1959. In 1969, an unfinished fragment was published. In addition, he also published three translations of Chinese works such as ''Confucious: The Unwobbling Pivot and the Great Digest''(1947), ''Confucian Analects''(1951) and ''The Classic Anthology''(1954).

Pound's most influential translation is ''Cathay'', which is written in the annals of literary history as Pound's literary achievement. As soon as ''Cathay'' was published, it immediately set off a "China fever" in the West and was known as "one of the best ten poems in the United States in the 20th century". The publication of ''Cathay'' has also become a representative work of imagist poetry, which has greatly promoted the development of imagist poetry in the West.

Pound's poetry translation is highly praised by western scholars and readers, but it is often criticized by Chinese scholars. Although these interesting Poems were described: "The text is clear, the translation and the form is lovely. It seems that it is easier to understand and more vivid than the original text. Unfortunately, these works can not be regarded as strict translation works, because when we compare them with the original text, we will find that it has many unfaithfulness, inaccuracy, and even taking it for granted." In fact, all this has a great relationship with Pound's translation thought. In order to clarify his translation thought, we must first look at his poetic opinions.

As a translator, pound is first of all an outstanding poet, the founder and main representative of imagist poetry. Pound's poetics plays an important role in the development of modern British and American poetry. At the beginning of the 20th century, he made an impact on the traditional poetics through his support for Imagist poetry. His ''Several Prohibitions Proposed by an Imagist'' is the Manifesto of imagism, which puts forward that "1) in writing poetry, we should use "image" (hence comes the name of "Imagism"), be specific and accurate, and avoid abstraction. 2) Formally, we should create new rhythms to express new poetry. We believe that free poetry can better express the poet's personality, but we do not object to using other poetry. 3) It should be refined and concentrated without wasted words and modification. 4) Write clearly, not vaguely or ambiguously. 5) Use popular language, use accurate words, not decorative words. 6）The subject matter is completely free without any restrictions, and modern life can be included in poetry.

What is "image"? Pound said that an image should present people with a complex of emotion and reason in an instant, that is, the formation of image means that emotion and reason suddenly combine into a complex. When pound broke away from Imagism and became interested in whirlpool movement, he developed his view on image. He said that image is not a thought, but a luminous nodule, a vortex from which many thoughts constantly rise, sink or pass through. The interpretation of this special function of image has a great impact on the structure of modern poetry. Pound also found the basis and inspiration from the images presented in ancient Chinese poetry. His poetry translation theory is actually the extension and development of his Imagist poetics.

According to the requirements of imagist poetry, the translated poetry should also be condensed, concise and implicit, highlight the beauty of image, and grasp the rhythm of internal impulse when writing poetry. For Pound, there is no difference between an ideal poet and an ideal poetry translator. Only by going deep into the thoughts of the original poem author, drilling into his soul and reaching "divine harmony" with him, can poetry translators surpass the obstacles of culture and language and translate the spirit and effect of the original poem. Pound grasped the details and highlighted the images in his translated poems. In translation, he does not scrutinize words and sentences, but makes his feelings enter the role of the original poet, condenses and refines the way of thinking and feeling in the original work, and then transmits them to English. His translation is not words and sentences, but words and sentences lead him to the things and feelings expressed by the word itself.

Pound does not emphasize the "meaning" of the text or the meaning of individual words in his translation work. On the contrary, he emphasizes rhythm, word selection and the contextual and intertextual meaning of words, that is, the words he said are in motion. He believes that the meaning of works of art is not invariable. When the language changes, the meaning of the work changes. The association caused by words in the original work is different from that caused by new works reshaped in different times and cultures.

On the expression of meaning, Pound emphasizes "the vitality of language". According to Pound's interpretation, language vitality refers to the new relationship between words and other words in the structure at a specific place and time, so as to obtain new quality, which brings "vitality" to the language. He added that words can "transmit electricity", produce certain qualities with each other, and their position in the text can produce a dynamic combination. We believe that Pound is actually talking about the contextual meaning of words. The new combination of words will produce new meaning, which is the so-called "vitality" of language. Because words cannot exist without context, the translator must have context (plot) and expression (event) in his mind.

Pound also requires the translator to always remember the historical atmosphere of the use of words, so that in the process of translation, he can not only reveal the meaning of words, but also show their implied meanings. He believes that meaning is not an abstract thing, but a part of language and is always in the flow of history, that is, "atmosphere". To unlock the meaning in this atmosphere, we must understand history and reproduce the "atmosphere" or environment generated by meaning. He also emphasized the importance of cultural information in determining the implied meaning of words and the meaning of word games in the context. He said that three or four words standing side by side can radiate great potential vitality... Those words are full of special vitality. It's the power of tradition, the power of national consciousness for centuries. Here, Pound actually emphasizes the intertextual meaning of words.

Pound has a very clear idea of translatable and untranslatable factors in poetry. He believes that the musical sense of poetry is difficult to translate, but the visual sense can be translated completely. However, the original meaning of words and the contextual meaning of word games cannot be translated. The translator must understand the constraints of time, place and ideology of the text, and then integrate it into the time, emotion, atmosphere and the author's thinking process. Maybe he can, but maybe he can't find an equivalent way of expression. Here, the only translatable is "visual sense", which is what Pound calls "image". He said:"The part of the poem that can touch the reader's eyes and arouse imagination will not be lost in translating into a foreign language; while the part that appeals to the reader's ears can only be felt by those who read the original work."

Therefore, Pound is not interested in abstract concepts in translation. He pays attention to form, sporadic images and individual details. He believes that only in an instant can we "grasp the truth". In this way, Pound grasped sporadic images and individual details in translation and wrote a new poem in English. Because of this, these poems are loved by English readers. They go beyond the scope of translation works and become independent English literary works. In fact, Pound wrote a half-translated and half-created poem based on ancient Chinese poetry. Pound did so with a purpose. When he published ''Cathay'' in 1915, he was a complacent young poet who had long been tired of the sad poetic style of Victoria in the 19th century and was quite disgusted with the abstract sermons and old themes and poetic methods of his predecessors. He needs to reform and make poetry a new life. He wants to add new color to the new era and replace the lyric with solid and vivid images. He explored this. In the process of his exploration, he came into contact with Chinese classical poetry, and was very interested in it, and got a lot of inspiration from it. Pound regarded translation as a tool of cultural struggle, just like the translation in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s, it was also used to challenge the popular aesthetic and cultural concepts in the United States and even the whole western society, and brought impetus to the whole anticultural movement.

In addition, it should be mentioned that Pound did not understand Chinese when translating ''Cathay''. In 1913, he got a batch of Chinese literature materials left over from the death of Ernest Fenollosa, an American Orientalist. With the help of two Japanese scholars, Fenollosa made detailed English annotations to some ancient Chinese poems. Pound looked at Fenollosa's notes and treated them like treasure. At that time, Pound was exploring to write poetry with "image", and the writing method of Chinese classical poetry was in line with his ideas in many aspects. These Chinese poems gave him great enlightenment. He began to translate some ancient Chinese poems according to Fenollosa's notes. Therefore, some of his "mistranslations" come from his practice of his own poetics and translation theory. On the other hand, they may come from Fenollosa's misunderstanding. Of course, this is also the regrettable side of Pound's translation. However, his translation of Chinese classical poetry played a role in spreading Chinese culture in the West and made an important contribution to the communication between eastern and western cultures.

====Influences of the American Translation Workshop and Ezra Pound====
The practitioners of the translation workshop took Pound as an example and got rid of the shackles of literal translation. But they rarely face Pound's translation theory or any other aesthetic theory. This tendency to despise theory enables them to emphasize or highlight a certain aspect of the text according to their own needs in translation. The first thing that the translation workshop learned from Pound was Aesthetics - the translation language was popular, without modification, and poetry was translated in free style. Therefore, in terms of aesthetics, the revolutionary and innovative aesthetics in Pound's period has become the mainstream aesthetics today. A translator who does not understand the language and culture of the original text can also translate, and his translated works can also be published, as long as he has the sensitivity and good appreciation of poetry, and can write English poetry in popular terms without modification. If you don't know a foreign language, you can enter the translation workshop as long as you have the sensitivity of poetry and can write good English. Because they rely on other people's annotation and literal translation like Pound.

The translation workshop took Pound's translation method as their basis, but they did so not so much as translation as creation. It is said that the translation workshop has also done an experiment. They sent word to word literal translation, line to line literal translation and notes on the form, language, cultural background and legend of ''The Yellow Crane Tower'' by Cui Hao, a poet from the Tang Dynasty, to more than 20 British and American writers and translators for translation, most of whom are quite famous. The result is imaginable - these translations are quite different in semantic differences, syntactic changes, line arrangement, image changes, poetic forms and metaphors. It is undeniable that some of the poems are really well written, but they are also far from Pound's translation thought. Edwin Genzler believes that the theoretical basis of the translation workshop is not so much Pound's translation thought as Plato's language theory, although they use Pound's translation methods. For Angela Elston argued for this phenomenon in her article on this experiment in 1980 that meaning can be expressed in various ways. Elston even believes that if the translator understands the original text, he is bound to imitate some forms of the original text, such as style, tone, musical sense and phonetic repetition. If the translator does not understand the original text, he will not be bound by these formal features in translation. Edwin Genzler believes that Elston's statement is just opposite to pound's translation thought, as Pound's translation theory emphasizes these formal features.

As for Pound's contributions to literary translation, we can look at them from three aspects.

First, in poetry translation, he gave up the original and antique language of the Victorian era. That kind of archaic English is not the English of a specific era in ancient England, but a hodgepodge of ancient or medieval English in many times in the past. The purpose is to give readers an impression of "ancient" and "past". Pound advocated looking at the past from a modern point of view and seeing the past as vivid and complex as modern. Therefore, Pound advocated translating classical poetry in contemporary language. His views and translation practice have had a great impact on the translation of contemporary poetry.

Second, to him, translation is regarded as a form of literary criticism. Pound's thought of creative translation and various strategies applied in translation have had a great impact on modern translation thought. Victorian translators emphasized their loyalty to the original works and their accurate understanding of the original works; contemporary poets and translators highlight inspiration. They believe that from Fenollosa's notes, the poet can get inspiration and translate good poetry. This thought has something to do with Pound's method of translating ancient poems in ''Cathay''. Therefore, "only poets can translate poetry" has become an accepted view. Taking Pound as an example, translation is no longer the equivalence of calculating syllables and looking for meaning, but the expression of the poets and translators' insight into the original poem in many aspects - the meaning, tone and style of the original poem, and then make a choice to express some characteristics of the original poem in the translation and reflect their own criticism of the original poem.

Third, he regards translation as creation. For Pound, translating a poem is to create a new poem. This view can be seen from two aspects. Firstly, as mentioned above, Pound sees the past as a living factor in changing the present. The poetry he chose to translate is the classical poetry that he believes is lacking and needed in contemporary poetry. This is especially reflected in the Chinese classical poetry in his poetry collection of ''Cathay''. Secondly, Pound believes that translation can not only be an ancient poem, but an ancient poem from a modern point of view. Therefore, it is also a new poem. Dryden divides translation into word by word translation, imitation and free translation, while Pound advocates "creative translation". This creative translation can be said to be between fiction and free translation. Pound believes that translating a poem actually changes the original poem and the past. The translator looks at the past from the perspective of the 20th century and reproduces the poetry of the past with the experience and ideas of the 20th century. Pound opened up a new way for poetry translation - besides literal translation and free translation, creative translation can also be carried out. This is pound's greatest contribution to literary translation.

====Conclusion====
From the essay, we can conclude that the translation workshop has not made much contribution to literary translation theory. Their contribution is not in the concept of translation equivalence, but in semantic association, cognition and music, and in revealing the "black box" in the mind in the process of translation. On the latter hand, the American Translation Workshop opened a precedent, because before that, American translation research focused on translation, not on the process of translation. As for Ezra Pound, one of the greatest representatives of the workshop, from the great success of ''Cathay'' in the west, Chinese translators can get a lot of enlightenment: First, translate poetry with poetry. Second, find the spiritual fit between the translator and the original poet (such as Shelley's works translated by Guo Moruo). Third, Integrate translator's own feelings into the translated poetry, or when selecting the original works for translation, choose those works that are connected with the translator's own emotions. Fourth, attach importance to the similarity of spirit and light the similarity of form. Finally, fully consider whether the translation is suitable for the recipient's psychology and habits to the greatest extent.

--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:36, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Hist Trans Theo EN 3

2021-12-13T11:36:00Z

Zeng Junlin: /* Conclusion */

'''History of Translation Theories'''

[[History_of_Translation_Theories|An Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——The American Translation Workshop]]

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===Chapter 3 An Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——The American Translation Workshop===

====Abstract====

====Key words====
American Translation Theory, American Translation Workshop, Ezra Pound

====Introduction====

====Development of the American Translation Workshop in American Universities====
From the study of the history of western translation and its theory in the United States, translation theory can be said to be an ancient discipline. However, in the modern sense of the word "theory", translation theory can also be described as a brand new discipline. As for "ancient", it can be traced back to Cicero (106-43,B.C.) in ancient Rome; As for "brand new", it was not until 1983 that "translation theory" was listed separately as a branch discipline in the bibliography of the international modern language society. In fact, prior to this, modern translation theory can be traced back to the publication of ''The Summary of Translation Theory'' by A.V. Fedorov from former Soviet Union.

Since the 1960s, literary translation has attracted more and more public and academic attention in the United States. A large number of foreign literary works had been translated into English, which has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States. The development is marked by the rise of translation workshops in American universities.

=====New Criticism and The Establishment of the Translation Workshop=====
In the early 1960s, there was no translation workshop in American universities. In the American university system, translation is not listed as a subject. The United States also has no Literary Translators Association and no special translation publications. In 1964, the director of the Writing Workshop from the University of Iowa Paul Engle initiated the translation workshop. He expanded his writing workshop and invited writers from other countries to participate. He also believes that creative activities have no national boundaries. This year, Engle hired a full-time director for the translation workshop and awarded credits for literary translation. The following year, the Ford Foundation funded the University of Texas at Austin to establish the American Translation Research Center. In the same year, the publication of poetry translation ''Modern Poetry in Translation'' was published around the United States. In 1968, the American Center for Translation Studies published the first issue of its official journal ''Delos'', which aims to study the history of translation and translation aesthetics. From then on, literary translation began to occupy a small place in American culture.

In the 1970s, literary translation continued to be developed and recognized. Soon, famous institutions of higher education such as Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Texas and the State University of New York set up translation workshops and courses at various levels, and awarded high-level degrees to students engaged in literary translation, translation history and translation theory. The development of literary translation and research has promoted the establishment of professional organizations for translators. In the late 1970s, the American Literary Translators Association was established and published the academic magazine ''Translation''. A school of thought surrounding the translation workshop came into being. In practice, the school does not talk about theory, but in fact, it consciously or unconsciously used Ivor Armstrong Richards'(1893-1979) reading workshop methods. In order to understand the theoretical guiding ideology followed by the American Translation Workshop, we have to talk about the new criticism, especially the literary theory of I.A. Richards, who is one of its representatives.

The term "New Criticism" usually refers to a literary theory and critical trend of thought, or a method of understanding and interpreting literature. Marked by the works of I.A. Richards and Thomas Stearns Eliot(1888-1965), it began in Britain before the Second World War and later developed in the United States from the 1940s to the 1960s. In 1941, John Crowe Ransom(1888-1974) published the book ''New Criticism''. This monograph summarizes the "new" literary theory and critical thought since the 1920s, from which the term "New Criticism" was established and became popular. The new criticism school is not strictly a school. The writers and theorists known as the new criticism school have many differences in theory, but their common feature is that they oppose the traditional positivist historical and biographical criticism methods and "transfer their interest from poets to poetry". In other words, the new critics advocate paying attention to the text and texture of the works, that is, the words and various rhetorical devices, and making detailed analysis and annotation of literary works through close reading. New criticism has had a great impact on British and American literary criticism. Some people believe that the important contribution of the English world to literary theory almost depends on the new critical theory. Until recently, the new critical theory was still in the field of university teaching in the United States. It also has a great impact on the field of British literature teaching.

One of the founders of the new criticism is I.A. Richards. He is an English literary critic, linguist and poet who tudied at Cambridge University. After that, he successively taught at Cambridge University (1922-1929), Tsinghua University in China (1929-1930) and Harvard University in the United States (1931-1960). He has long been devoted to the study of the relationship between psychology, literature and semantics. His study of literary theory occupies an important position in the history of literary theory in Britain and the United States. His main works include ''Principles of Literary Criticism'' (1924) and ''Science and Poetry'' (1925), which are representative works of new critical theory. In the 1920s, Richards did a famous experiment at Cambridge University. He chose 13 poems without indicating the title and author, and asked the students to express their understanding and experience after reading them. In his book ''Practical Criticism'' (1929), he analyzes the students' errors in understanding and commenting, and tries to find out the causes of the errors. He believes that some errors come from the text itself, while others lie in the readers themselves. Richards' starting point is to separate poetry from the author, readers and society, and students should not have any transcendental influence before reading. He separated the students and the text from the society in order to confirm his view that the text has a "unified" meaning, which can be recognized, and there is also a unified evaluation system. With this system, readers can judge the value of "meaning". This method allows students to read and understand the poem itself.

Richards did this for three purposes. 1) In order to provide a new way to collect materials. 2) Provide a new reading method for those who want to experience poetry. 3) Provide a new educational method to analyze and judge what we hear and witness and develop our understanding ability. The analysis and interpretation methods of the new criticism to the works develop along the direction provided by Richards.

=====Relationships Between the Translation Workshop and the Writing Workshop=====
To find more thoughts about the translation workshop ,we need to find the relationships between the translation workshop and the writing workshop.

1)Both workshops provide a new way to collect materials for western culture. Later translation workshops followed the principles of Richards' reading workshop. For example, Jonas Zdanys, director of the translation workshop at the University of Iowa, claims that, like Richards's experiment, he is proud that he does not let students have any method or theoretical guidance in advance. This approach seems to try to get rid of any constraints in order to investigate the translation process "more genuinly". In this way, Richards tries to find some rules and principles of reading comprehension, so as to make communication more accurate and subtle. The only difference between the translation workshop and Richards' reading workshop is that the translation workshop should find not only the law of reading, but also the law of writing. But in fact, in colleges and universities, whether Richards' writing workshop or later translation workshop, students are allowed to form views consistent with the existing aesthetics and form those prejudices that control the literary mechanism.

2)The purpose of the two workshops is the same, which is to teach students how to appreciate, understand and interpret literary works. Richards emphasized that one should let himself discover the meaning of poetry. This seems to be quite tolerant and democratic. But there is a humanistic thought hidden in it. On the surface, Richards' method seems to allow multiple interpretations of the text. The processing method of reading is also open, personal, and potential anti existing system factors, but it can also strengthen the traditional interpretation. His purpose is to establish a new educational method so that students can "perfectly" understand the text and achieve a unified and correct response. In his workshop, Richards does not pursue different responses, but strives to obtain unified solutions to communication problems, summarizes some laws and principles, and follows them to enable students to form their own understanding and judgment. The starting point of this mode is that the experience of poetry, which can be conveyed accurately and completely to another person, provided that the person is properly educated. Similarly, you can judge poetry, but only if you are trained. After his training, students can appreciate, understand and judge poetry like him.

Jonas Zdanys, head of the Yale translation workshop, also emphasized his appreciation of poetry and student translation. He believes that translation can enable students to further understand poetry, language, aesthetics and interpretation. On the one hand, he hopes that this course can make students interested in theoretical issues in order to explore all aspects of poetry translation theory and practice. On the other hand, he also claimed that in his concluding article on ''The Curriculum Structure of Translation Teaching''(1987), he pointed out that at the end of learning, students have a fuller understanding of the complexity of literature. This shows that he regards translation as a subjective activity and translation as a part of literary understanding and interpretation. This reflects his humanistic view on translation. Zdanys' views on teaching appreciation poetry are quite in tune with the views of the new critics.

Frederic Will is the director of the first translation workshop at the University of Iowa. He regards translation as a form of naming, novel creation and cognition. Although he believes that there is no same objective fact, it is possible to understand the essence, because, according to him, there is a "central common core" in human experience and feelings, which can overcome the fuzziness of language and expose the "external reality". He also believes that a literary work has its internal unified meaning, so it is possible to achieve a common understanding. This is entirely the discipline of the new critics.

Rainer Schulte is a member of the translation workshop at the University of Texas at Dallas. His view further affirmed the purpose of the translation workshop. In his article ''The Misery and the Splendor of Teaching Translation''(1994), he believes that the main purpose of the translation workshop is not to train translators, but to read and understand literary works. He complained that in the past few decades, in the English Department, students did not read works, but read articles and books commenting on works. In this way, students cannot have direct contact with the literary works themselves. On the contrary, the practice of the translation workshop is to enable students to get back to the work itself through the discussion of the work. "Therefore, the translation workshop reactivated the art of interpretation... and reaffirmed the art of reading." He also said that if readers read from the perspective of the translator, they can put themselves in the works and interpret the works in their own mother tongue through the exploration of language. The translator is to transform the act of reading into the act of writing. Therefore, the translation workshop is a means for students to read literary works and find their meaning.

The basic point of understanding and interpreting literature is the exploration of meaning and the view of the essence of language and literature. In this regard, the guiding ideology of the American translation workshop is deeply influenced by the new critics. It can be seen that the purpose of the two workshops is the same, that is, to obtain the author's experience and re-express this experience, that is, to appreciate, understand and interpret poetry. The only difference is that the means of expressing this experience are different. The members of the translation workshop should express themselves in another language. Moreover, literary translation is often regarded as a form of "close reading" in the United States, while some people think it is the most detailed form of "close reading". The purpose of the formal translation workshop and Richards' writing workshop is to perfectly express the experience of this kind of poetry with perfect interpretation or translation. From the perspective of curriculum structure, the teaching method of translation workshop also adopts the method of Richards writing workshop in some aspects.

3）The impact of the translation workshop is consistent with that of the new critical trend of thought. New criticism is an anti-traditional method of interpreting literature. In the United States, translation is also regarded as an aspect of the anti existing system and anti-traditional cultural movement at that time. Many contemporary American poets actively translate foreign works as a means to oppose traditional literary norms, domestic and foreign policies against politics, and even against the whole western society. For a time, translation became popular in the United States, with a large number of people and great influence, forming a climax in the history of American translation.

=====Richards' Further Translation Teaching Activities=====
Richards is not only a pioneer in holding a writing workshop, but also a pioneer in holding a translation workshop. His translation teaching activities can be regarded as the continuation of his literary criticism activities.

Richards' exploration of meaning also goes deep into the field of translation. In other words, he tries to explain his theory of meaning through the study of translation. In 1953, he published an article entitled ''Towards a Theory of Translating''. He deeply feels the complexity of meaning through the comparison between the original and the translation. He realized that understanding meaning involves too many aspects to be comprehensive. In ''Towards a Theory of Translating'', he uses "purpose" to limit the level of understanding meaning. He proposed that if the translator has the same purpose, he can find an appropriate method to determine meaning. The essence of Richards' theory has not changed. He still wants to achieve the understanding of "unity" from the text. On the one hand, he stressed that "translation is perhaps the most complex event since the dawn of the world"; On the other hand, he believes that translators with appropriate education and practice can obtain appropriate methods to correctly understand the original work. Therefore, Richards' view of meaning has basically not changed, but he is more aware of the complexity of meaning. He insists that it is possible to achieve a consistent and correct understanding after appropriate training, which is the purpose of the translation workshop. Richards believes that translation theory is not only to make people who use different languages better understand each other, but also to better understand translation itself and understand meaning (translation serves to understand meaning). In other words, in the literary theory of new criticism, translation is only one aspect of understanding and interpretation. This is exactly the purpose of the translation workshop advocated by Zdanys.

In general, the members of the translation workshop openly claim to oppose the constraints of any theory and place one-sided emphasis on practice. Although they also talk about their feelings of literary appreciation and interpretation, as well as various views on translation, they are still some personal experience and experiences, and can not form any systematic theory. Their research methods basically remain within the scope of traditional language and literature. Therefore, they make little contribution to the construction of contemporary translation theory, but have a great impact on translation practice. This is also Ezra Pound's translation activities and his translation ideas.

====Translations Thoughts of Ezra Pound——Leading Exponent of American Translation Workshop====
Ezra Pound(1885-1972), an American poet, literary critic, and the main representative of new critical and Imagist poetry, has made an important contribution to the development of modern British and American literature. He was born in Idaho and studied at the University of Pennsylvania at the age of 16. He transferred to Hamilton University in 1903. He returned to the University of Pennsylvania in 1905 to study Roman language and literature. He received a master's degree in 1906 and has extensive language knowledge. In September 1908, he went to England, joined a small circle centered on the poet Yeats, met a group of writers and poets, and became the leader of London modernist poets. He called himself and his friends Imagist poets. In 1914, he compiled the first volume of ''Selected Poems of Imagism''. Soon, he was keen on the activities of vortex school and broke away from Imagism. He helped Joyce, Eliot, Hemingway and other writers and had been living in Italy from 1924 to 1944. During the Second World War, he publicized fascism. After the war, he was accused of treason and sent to Washington for trial. Later, he was sent to a mental hospital because he was determined to be insane. At last, he was allowed to return to Italy in 1958.

Pound published ''Ecstasy'' and ''People'' in London in 1909. His speeches in London were also compiled into a collection, ''The Spirit of Romance'', which was published in 1910. In 1915, he published an English translation of the ancient Chinese poem ''China'' (also translated as ''Huaxia''). From 1916 to 1917, he translated Japanese drama. Pound's main poem is long, which was published in batches in the form of "chapters" from 1917 to 1959. In 1969, an unfinished fragment was published. In addition, he also published three translations of Chinese works such as ''Confucious: The Unwobbling Pivot and the Great Digest''(1947), ''Confucian Analects''(1951) and ''The Classic Anthology''(1954).

Pound's most influential translation is ''Cathay'', which is written in the annals of literary history as Pound's literary achievement. As soon as ''Cathay'' was published, it immediately set off a "China fever" in the West and was known as "one of the best ten poems in the United States in the 20th century". The publication of ''Cathay'' has also become a representative work of imagist poetry, which has greatly promoted the development of imagist poetry in the West.

Pound's poetry translation is highly praised by western scholars and readers, but it is often criticized by Chinese scholars. Although these interesting Poems were described: "The text is clear, the translation and the form is lovely. It seems that it is easier to understand and more vivid than the original text. Unfortunately, these works can not be regarded as strict translation works, because when we compare them with the original text, we will find that it has many unfaithfulness, inaccuracy, and even taking it for granted." In fact, all this has a great relationship with Pound's translation thought. In order to clarify his translation thought, we must first look at his poetic opinions.

As a translator, pound is first of all an outstanding poet, the founder and main representative of imagist poetry. Pound's poetics plays an important role in the development of modern British and American poetry. At the beginning of the 20th century, he made an impact on the traditional poetics through his support for Imagist poetry. His ''Several Prohibitions Proposed by an Imagist'' is the Manifesto of imagism, which puts forward that "1) in writing poetry, we should use "image" (hence comes the name of "Imagism"), be specific and accurate, and avoid abstraction. 2) Formally, we should create new rhythms to express new poetry. We believe that free poetry can better express the poet's personality, but we do not object to using other poetry. 3) It should be refined and concentrated without wasted words and modification. 4) Write clearly, not vaguely or ambiguously. 5) Use popular language, use accurate words, not decorative words. 6）The subject matter is completely free without any restrictions, and modern life can be included in poetry.

What is "image"? Pound said that an image should present people with a complex of emotion and reason in an instant, that is, the formation of image means that emotion and reason suddenly combine into a complex. When pound broke away from Imagism and became interested in whirlpool movement, he developed his view on image. He said that image is not a thought, but a luminous nodule, a vortex from which many thoughts constantly rise, sink or pass through. The interpretation of this special function of image has a great impact on the structure of modern poetry. Pound also found the basis and inspiration from the images presented in ancient Chinese poetry. His poetry translation theory is actually the extension and development of his Imagist poetics.

According to the requirements of imagist poetry, the translated poetry should also be condensed, concise and implicit, highlight the beauty of image, and grasp the rhythm of internal impulse when writing poetry. For Pound, there is no difference between an ideal poet and an ideal poetry translator. Only by going deep into the thoughts of the original poem author, drilling into his soul and reaching "divine harmony" with him, can poetry translators surpass the obstacles of culture and language and translate the spirit and effect of the original poem. Pound grasped the details and highlighted the images in his translated poems. In translation, he does not scrutinize words and sentences, but makes his feelings enter the role of the original poet, condenses and refines the way of thinking and feeling in the original work, and then transmits them to English. His translation is not words and sentences, but words and sentences lead him to the things and feelings expressed by the word itself.

Pound does not emphasize the "meaning" of the text or the meaning of individual words in his translation work. On the contrary, he emphasizes rhythm, word selection and the contextual and intertextual meaning of words, that is, the words he said are in motion. He believes that the meaning of works of art is not invariable. When the language changes, the meaning of the work changes. The association caused by words in the original work is different from that caused by new works reshaped in different times and cultures.

On the expression of meaning, Pound emphasizes "the vitality of language". According to Pound's interpretation, language vitality refers to the new relationship between words and other words in the structure at a specific place and time, so as to obtain new quality, which brings "vitality" to the language. He added that words can "transmit electricity", produce certain qualities with each other, and their position in the text can produce a dynamic combination. We believe that Pound is actually talking about the contextual meaning of words. The new combination of words will produce new meaning, which is the so-called "vitality" of language. Because words cannot exist without context, the translator must have context (plot) and expression (event) in his mind.

Pound also requires the translator to always remember the historical atmosphere of the use of words, so that in the process of translation, he can not only reveal the meaning of words, but also show their implied meanings. He believes that meaning is not an abstract thing, but a part of language and is always in the flow of history, that is, "atmosphere". To unlock the meaning in this atmosphere, we must understand history and reproduce the "atmosphere" or environment generated by meaning. He also emphasized the importance of cultural information in determining the implied meaning of words and the meaning of word games in the context. He said that three or four words standing side by side can radiate great potential vitality... Those words are full of special vitality. It's the power of tradition, the power of national consciousness for centuries. Here, Pound actually emphasizes the intertextual meaning of words.

Pound has a very clear idea of translatable and untranslatable factors in poetry. He believes that the musical sense of poetry is difficult to translate, but the visual sense can be translated completely. However, the original meaning of words and the contextual meaning of word games cannot be translated. The translator must understand the constraints of time, place and ideology of the text, and then integrate it into the time, emotion, atmosphere and the author's thinking process. Maybe he can, but maybe he can't find an equivalent way of expression. Here, the only translatable is "visual sense", which is what Pound calls "image". He said:"The part of the poem that can touch the reader's eyes and arouse imagination will not be lost in translating into a foreign language; while the part that appeals to the reader's ears can only be felt by those who read the original work."

Therefore, Pound is not interested in abstract concepts in translation. He pays attention to form, sporadic images and individual details. He believes that only in an instant can we "grasp the truth". In this way, Pound grasped sporadic images and individual details in translation and wrote a new poem in English. Because of this, these poems are loved by English readers. They go beyond the scope of translation works and become independent English literary works. In fact, Pound wrote a half-translated and half-created poem based on ancient Chinese poetry. Pound did so with a purpose. When he published ''Cathay'' in 1915, he was a complacent young poet who had long been tired of the sad poetic style of Victoria in the 19th century and was quite disgusted with the abstract sermons and old themes and poetic methods of his predecessors. He needs to reform and make poetry a new life. He wants to add new color to the new era and replace the lyric with solid and vivid images. He explored this. In the process of his exploration, he came into contact with Chinese classical poetry, and was very interested in it, and got a lot of inspiration from it. Pound regarded translation as a tool of cultural struggle, just like the translation in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s, it was also used to challenge the popular aesthetic and cultural concepts in the United States and even the whole western society, and brought impetus to the whole anticultural movement.

In addition, it should be mentioned that Pound did not understand Chinese when translating ''Cathay''. In 1913, he got a batch of Chinese literature materials left over from the death of Ernest Fenollosa, an American Orientalist. With the help of two Japanese scholars, Fenollosa made detailed English annotations to some ancient Chinese poems. Pound looked at Fenollosa's notes and treated them like treasure. At that time, Pound was exploring to write poetry with "image", and the writing method of Chinese classical poetry was in line with his ideas in many aspects. These Chinese poems gave him great enlightenment. He began to translate some ancient Chinese poems according to Fenollosa's notes. Therefore, some of his "mistranslations" come from his practice of his own poetics and translation theory. On the other hand, they may come from Fenollosa's misunderstanding. Of course, this is also the regrettable side of Pound's translation. However, his translation of Chinese classical poetry played a role in spreading Chinese culture in the West and made an important contribution to the communication between eastern and western cultures.

====Influences of the American Translation Workshop and Ezra Pound====
The practitioners of the translation workshop took Pound as an example and got rid of the shackles of literal translation. But they rarely face Pound's translation theory or any other aesthetic theory. This tendency to despise theory enables them to emphasize or highlight a certain aspect of the text according to their own needs in translation. The first thing that the translation workshop learned from Pound was Aesthetics - the translation language was popular, without modification, and poetry was translated in free style. Therefore, in terms of aesthetics, the revolutionary and innovative aesthetics in Pound's period has become the mainstream aesthetics today. A translator who does not understand the language and culture of the original text can also translate, and his translated works can also be published, as long as he has the sensitivity and good appreciation of poetry, and can write English poetry in popular terms without modification. If you don't know a foreign language, you can enter the translation workshop as long as you have the sensitivity of poetry and can write good English. Because they rely on other people's annotation and literal translation like Pound.

The translation workshop took Pound's translation method as their basis, but they did so not so much as translation as creation. It is said that the translation workshop has also done an experiment. They sent word to word literal translation, line to line literal translation and notes on the form, language, cultural background and legend of ''The Yellow Crane Tower'' by Cui Hao, a poet from the Tang Dynasty, to more than 20 British and American writers and translators for translation, most of whom are quite famous. The result is imaginable - these translations are quite different in semantic differences, syntactic changes, line arrangement, image changes, poetic forms and metaphors. It is undeniable that some of the poems are really well written, but they are also far from Pound's translation thought. Edwin Genzler believes that the theoretical basis of the translation workshop is not so much Pound's translation thought as Plato's language theory, although they use Pound's translation methods. For Angela Elston argued for this phenomenon in her article on this experiment in 1980 that meaning can be expressed in various ways. Elston even believes that if the translator understands the original text, he is bound to imitate some forms of the original text, such as style, tone, musical sense and phonetic repetition. If the translator does not understand the original text, he will not be bound by these formal features in translation. Edwin Genzler believes that Elston's statement is just opposite to pound's translation thought, as Pound's translation theory emphasizes these formal features.

As for Pound's contributions to literary translation, we can look at them from three aspects.

First, in poetry translation, he gave up the original and antique language of the Victorian era. That kind of archaic English is not the English of a specific era in ancient England, but a hodgepodge of ancient or medieval English in many times in the past. The purpose is to give readers an impression of "ancient" and "past". Pound advocated looking at the past from a modern point of view and seeing the past as vivid and complex as modern. Therefore, Pound advocated translating classical poetry in contemporary language. His views and translation practice have had a great impact on the translation of contemporary poetry.

Second, to him, translation is regarded as a form of literary criticism. Pound's thought of creative translation and various strategies applied in translation have had a great impact on modern translation thought. Victorian translators emphasized their loyalty to the original works and their accurate understanding of the original works; contemporary poets and translators highlight inspiration. They believe that from Fenollosa's notes, the poet can get inspiration and translate good poetry. This thought has something to do with Pound's method of translating ancient poems in ''Cathay''. Therefore, "only poets can translate poetry" has become an accepted view. Taking Pound as an example, translation is no longer the equivalence of calculating syllables and looking for meaning, but the expression of the poets and translators' insight into the original poem in many aspects - the meaning, tone and style of the original poem, and then make a choice to express some characteristics of the original poem in the translation and reflect their own criticism of the original poem.

Third, he regards translation as creation. For Pound, translating a poem is to create a new poem. This view can be seen from two aspects. Firstly, as mentioned above, Pound sees the past as a living factor in changing the present. The poetry he chose to translate is the classical poetry that he believes is lacking and needed in contemporary poetry. This is especially reflected in the Chinese classical poetry in his poetry collection of ''Cathay''. Secondly, Pound believes that translation can not only be an ancient poem, but an ancient poem from a modern point of view. Therefore, it is also a new poem. Dryden divides translation into word by word translation, imitation and free translation, while Pound advocates "creative translation". This creative translation can be said to be between fiction and free translation. Pound believes that translating a poem actually changes the original poem and the past. The translator looks at the past from the perspective of the 20th century and reproduces the poetry of the past with the experience and ideas of the 20th century. Pound opened up a new way for poetry translation - besides literal translation and free translation, creative translation can also be carried out. This is pound's greatest contribution to literary translation.

====Conclusion====
From the essay, we can conclude that the translation workshop has not made much contribution to literary translation theory. Their contribution is not in the concept of translation equivalence, but in semantic association, cognition and music, and in revealing the "black box" in the mind in the process of translation. On the latter hand, the American Translation Workshop opened a precedent, because before that, American translation research focused on translation, not on the process of translation. As for Ezra Pound, one of the greatest representatives of the workshop, from the great success of ''Cathay'' in the west, Chinese translators can get a lot of enlightenment: First, translate poetry with poetry. Second, find the spiritual fit between the translator and the original poet (such as Shelley's works translated by Guo Moruo). Third, Integrate translator's own feelings into the translated poetry, or when selecting the original works for translation, choose those works that are connected with the translator's own emotions. Fourth, attach importance to the similarity of spirit and light the similarity of form. Finally, fully consider whether the translation is suitable for the recipient's psychology and habits to the greatest extent.

--[[User:Zeng Junlin|Zeng Junlin]] ([[User talk:Zeng Junlin|talk]]) 11:36, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

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Zeng Junlin: /* Characteristics of the development of western translation theory */

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Zeng Junlin: /* 西方翻译理论发展概述 */

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Zeng Junlin: /* 西方翻译理论发展概述 */

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Zeng Junlin: /* Introduction */

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Zeng Junlin: /* References */

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Zeng Junlin: /* Period of Modern translation theory */

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Zeng Junlin: /* Introduction */

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Zeng Junlin: /* Introduction */