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2020-12-25T12:05:29Z

Zhang Hui: /* Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''
==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)
==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.
==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，我们因此成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201228 cult

2020-12-25T12:01:24Z

Zhang Hui: /* Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 */

==Alsied, Saffana==

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==

==Grosheva, Anna==

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。

1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.

2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.

3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。

3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==

==Li Lili 李丽丽==

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, ''Tao Te Ching'' has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion.

2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. He gave different instructions to different students, taking into account their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their advancement and cultivation, showing the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.

3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of the ''The Sutra of Huineng'' represents the thought of Huineng, while there are also some elements of later additions to it.

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。

''The Importance of Living'' was the first book after Lin Yutang had traveled to the United States and was another successful work in English after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was republished more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages for global distribution.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

1.汉武帝刘彻即位时，张骞已在朝廷担任名为“郎”的侍从官。据史书记载，他“为人强力，宽大信人”。即具有坚韧不拔、心胸开阔，并能以信义待人的优良品质。建元三年，即公元前138年，张骞“以郎应募，使月氏”。“郎”，是皇帝的侍从官，没有固定职务，又随时可能被选授重任。

When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Liu Che assumed the throne, Zhang Qian was already working at the court as a retainer named "Lang". According to historical records, he was "a strong, generous and trustworthy". In other words, he was tough, open-minded, and could treat people with faith and justice. In the third year of Jian Yuan, that is, 138 B.C., Zhang Qian was recruited to make a mission to the Moon Dynasty. The "Lang", the emperor's retainer, has no fixed position, and may be chosen at any time to reappoint.

2.有观点认为，明初时海外威胁受到重视，故有郑和下西洋之事。然而，或许郑和过于成功了，“他的海军满载荣誉胜利归来，并确认帝国没有来自海上的威胁”，因此“郑和与他的随从也可以说失去了继续远航的意义。”

It has been argued that the overseas threat was taken seriously at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, hence Zheng He's voyage to the West. However, perhaps Zheng He was too successful, "his navy returned triumphantly laden with glory and confirmed that there was no threat to the empire from the sea", so "Zheng He and his entourage could be said to have lost the point of continuing their voyage".

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。许多人以转译日本人所著的西学书籍来接受西学。进入民国时期，由于对政治的不满又进一步导致知识分子们提出全盘西化的主张，在五四时期这种思想造成了很大的影响。这一波的西学东渐，一直持续到当代而未止。

After the First Sino-Japanese War, as China was facing the fate of national ruin, many learned people began to learn more actively and comprehensively from the West, and a group of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a lot of natural and social science knowledge from the West, and also demanded reforms in politics. A great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China during this period, and its influence was very widespread. Many people embraced Western learning by translating Western books written by the Japanese. In the Republican period, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to advocate wholesale Westernization, which had a great impact in the May Fourth period. This wave of Western learning continued into contemporary times.

4.洋务派前期创办的军事工业，经费由清政府调拨，产品分配给军队使用，管理方式是封建衙门式的。虽然这些企业采用机器生产，但本质上属于带有资本主义因素的封建官办企业。

The military industries founded by the foreign affairs faction in the early period were financed by the Qing government, and the products were allocated to the army for use, and managed in a feudal government office style. Although these enterprises adopted machine production, they were essentially feudal government-run enterprises with capitalist elements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==

==Wang Xuan 王轩==

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==

==Xie Fan 解帆==

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

==Yu Ni 余妮==

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。

In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。

In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。

The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

1.张骞出使西域,接触到西域各国的风土人情，是汉朝开始对西域各国有所了解，使汉朝与西域建立了友好关系，为后来西汉政府设置西域都护府，使西域正式归西汉政府管辖打下了基础。

Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Regions brought in contact with the customs of the Western Regions. It was the Han dynasty that began to understand the Western Regions countries, which enabled the Han dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions. Later, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Protectorate and made the Western Regions officially returned to the Western Han government. Jurisdiction laid the foundation.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has always been an important bridge for the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

Western learning has brought various new academic achievements in modern Western modern times into China, deeply affecting the development of various academics, and many disciplines that are not valued or even existed in traditional China have also been developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism, and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not make China embark on a path of prosperity.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

1.先秦时期，连接中国东西方交流的通道已经存在，丝绸正式西传始于西汉通西域，丝绸之路真正形成始于西汉张骞凿空。

The pre-Qin period, connecting China's East and West exchange channel has existed, the official western transmission of silk began in the Western Han Dynasty through the Western Regions, the Silk Road really formed from the Western Han Dynasty Zhang Qian chiseling.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In the pre-Qin period, a channel connecting China's east and west already existed. The official spread of silk to the west began in the Western Han Dynasty, and the real formation of the Silk Road began when Zhang Qian's hollowed out in the Western Han Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the "Maritime Route of Ceramics" and the "Maritime Route of Spices", was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西书七千部传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, the seven thousand missionaries of the Western Book, represented by Matteo Ricci, came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, 7,000 missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动，是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The Foreign Affairs Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-help movement conducted by the Foreign Affairs faction of the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machinery production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Westernization Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization Movement from the 1860s to the late Qing Dynasty that introduced Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing rule.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201228 cult

2020-12-25T11:58:13Z

Zhang Hui: /* Zhang Hui 张慧 */

==Alsied, Saffana==

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==

==Grosheva, Anna==

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。

1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.

2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.

3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。

3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==

==Li Lili 李丽丽==

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, ''Tao Te Ching'' has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion.

2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. He gave different instructions to different students, taking into account their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their advancement and cultivation, showing the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.

3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of the ''The Sutra of Huineng'' represents the thought of Huineng, while there are also some elements of later additions to it.

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。

''The Importance of Living'' was the first book after Lin Yutang had traveled to the United States and was another successful work in English after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was republished more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages for global distribution.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

1.汉武帝刘彻即位时，张骞已在朝廷担任名为“郎”的侍从官。据史书记载，他“为人强力，宽大信人”。即具有坚韧不拔、心胸开阔，并能以信义待人的优良品质。建元三年，即公元前138年，张骞“以郎应募，使月氏”。“郎”，是皇帝的侍从官，没有固定职务，又随时可能被选授重任。

When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Liu Che assumed the throne, Zhang Qian was already working at the court as a retainer named "Lang". According to historical records, he was "a strong, generous and trustworthy". In other words, he was tough, open-minded, and could treat people with faith and justice. In the third year of Jian Yuan, that is, 138 B.C., Zhang Qian was recruited to make a mission to the Moon Dynasty. The "Lang", the emperor's retainer, has no fixed position, and may be chosen at any time to reappoint.

2.有观点认为，明初时海外威胁受到重视，故有郑和下西洋之事。然而，或许郑和过于成功了，“他的海军满载荣誉胜利归来，并确认帝国没有来自海上的威胁”，因此“郑和与他的随从也可以说失去了继续远航的意义。”

It has been argued that the overseas threat was taken seriously at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, hence Zheng He's voyage to the West. However, perhaps Zheng He was too successful, "his navy returned triumphantly laden with glory and confirmed that there was no threat to the empire from the sea", so "Zheng He and his entourage could be said to have lost the point of continuing their voyage".

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。许多人以转译日本人所著的西学书籍来接受西学。进入民国时期，由于对政治的不满又进一步导致知识分子们提出全盘西化的主张，在五四时期这种思想造成了很大的影响。这一波的西学东渐，一直持续到当代而未止。

After the First Sino-Japanese War, as China was facing the fate of national ruin, many learned people began to learn more actively and comprehensively from the West, and a group of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a lot of natural and social science knowledge from the West, and also demanded reforms in politics. A great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China during this period, and its influence was very widespread. Many people embraced Western learning by translating Western books written by the Japanese. In the Republican period, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to advocate wholesale Westernization, which had a great impact in the May Fourth period. This wave of Western learning continued into contemporary times.

4.洋务派前期创办的军事工业，经费由清政府调拨，产品分配给军队使用，管理方式是封建衙门式的。虽然这些企业采用机器生产，但本质上属于带有资本主义因素的封建官办企业。

The military industries founded by the foreign affairs faction in the early period were financed by the Qing government, and the products were allocated to the army for use, and managed in a feudal government office style. Although these enterprises adopted machine production, they were essentially feudal government-run enterprises with capitalist elements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==

==Wang Xuan 王轩==

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==

==Xie Fan 解帆==

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

==Yang Hui 阳慧==

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

==Yu Ni 余妮==

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.公元前123年，张骞随大将军卫青出使匈奴，在他的引导下，平息了多年来北方匈奴对汉王朝的骚扰，张骞因此被封为博望侯。

In 123 B. C. , Zhang Qian followed General Wei Qing in a major military raid against the Xiongnu. His guidance led to a number of victories, which succeeded in ending the harassment by the Xiongnu of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Qian was therefore conferred the title of Marquis of Bowang.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.郑和的船队由三百艘大船及三万多名水兵组成，船队中最大的一艘船被称为“宝船”，其船身长达133米，船桅多达九根，可搭载一千人。郑和和汉人与穆斯林船员一起打开了中国在非洲、印度及东南亚的贸易航线。

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels, 133-meter-long “treasure ships”, had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zheng He’s fleet had more than 300 ships and 30,000 sailors. The largest vessels(also called “treasure ships”),133-meter-long ,had up to nine masts and could carry a thousand people. Along with a Han and Muslim crew, Zheng opened up trade routes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:26, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.清末时，在“西学东渐”浪潮的冲击下，传统儿童教育踏入近代的门槛。

In late Qing dynasty, impacted by the wave of “ The Eastward Spread of Western Learning”, traditional children education stepped into the threshold of modern education. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.西进运动促进了农业、工业、交通业的飞速发展，也促进了美国城市化的进程。

The Westernization Movement promoted the rapid devepment of agrilucture, industry, transportation and the urbanization process of the United States as well. --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

1.张骞出使西域,接触到西域各国的风土人情，是汉朝开始对西域各国有所了解，使汉朝与西域建立了友好关系，为后来西汉政府设置西域都护府，使西域正式归西汉政府管辖打下了基础。

Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Regions brought in contact with the customs of the Western Regions. It was the Han dynasty that began to understand the Western Regions countries, which enabled the Han dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions. Later, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Protectorate and made the Western Regions officially returned to the Western Han government. Jurisdiction laid the foundation.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has always been an important bridge for the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

Western learning has brought various new academic achievements in modern Western modern times into China, deeply affecting the development of various academics, and many disciplines that are not valued or even existed in traditional China have also been developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism, and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not make China embark on a path of prosperity.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

1.先秦时期，连接中国东西方交流的通道已经存在，丝绸正式西传始于西汉通西域，丝绸之路真正形成始于西汉张骞凿空。

The pre-Qin period, connecting China's East and West exchange channel has existed, the official western transmission of silk began in the Western Han Dynasty through the Western Regions, the Silk Road really formed from the Western Han Dynasty Zhang Qian chiseling.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the "Maritime Route of Ceramics" and the "Maritime Route of Spices", was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西书七千部传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, the seven thousand missionaries of the Western Book, represented by Matteo Ricci, came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动，是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The Foreign Affairs Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-help movement conducted by the Foreign Affairs faction of the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machinery production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201228 trans

2020-12-25T11:49:58Z

Zhang Hui: /* Zhang Hui 张慧 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.
==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''
==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.
==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)
==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.
==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.
==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).
==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.
==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.
==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.
==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).
==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201215 cultexam 4

2020-12-21T08:10:37Z

Zhang Hui: /* C.Questions */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮英语笔译 202070080620==

===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"

===Zhaozhou Bridge===
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）

In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）

===Luoyang Bridge===
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)

The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)

It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)

There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)

===Lugou Bridge===
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）

The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）

As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）

===Guangji Bridge===
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)

Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)

There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)

The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)

The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)

Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)

===References===
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.

Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.

Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.

Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.

===Terms and expressions===

石拱桥 stone arch bridge

望柱 baluster

桥基 settlement

泄洪 flood discharging

桥墩 pier

抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block

华表Chinese totem pillar

栏杆 balustrade

燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin

启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge

===Questions===

1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?

2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?

3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?

4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?
===Answers===
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.

2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.

3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.

4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Milk Tea - Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼 MTI英语笔译 202070080621==

====Milk Tea====

We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”

Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）

So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!

====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====

Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.

====B.The Development of Milk Tea====

Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）

Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.

In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.

====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====

====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====

When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.

The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）

The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.

====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====

The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)

====3.Indian Masala Chai====

Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）

====C.Milk Tea and Health====

====1.Advantages====

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.

====2.Disadvantages====

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

====References====

1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15

2.《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食

3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》

4.茶颜悦色密码（2020）国企管理,(20)68.

====Terms and Expressions====

Milk tea 奶茶

Spice 香辛料

Rudiment 雏形

Sexytea 茶颜悦色

Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁

Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶

Cholesterol 胆固醇

Hyperglycemia 高血糖

Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原

Maple sugar 枫糖

Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶

Internet celebrity city网红城市

Pecans 碧根果

Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶

Hyperlipidemia 高血脂

Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病

Gastrointestinal 肠胃的

====Questions====

1.What is the origin of milk tea?

Mongolia Milk Tea.

2.Who promoted milk tea?

British colonists.

3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?

Britain.

4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?

Sexytea.

5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?

No.

6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.

7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良- MTI 英语笔译-202070080578==

===Introduction===

Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty (Wei Tuo 2006,13)

In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)

The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)

There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)

The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)

The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three floors hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)

Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion. (Zhang Lu 2013, 26)

During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''. This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)

Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)

There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salutes to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility. (Gao Jing 2010,16)

Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color. (Pang Runxin 2019,10)

===Terms and Expressions===

Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden 清明上河园

''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' 《清明上河图》

Rainbow Bridge 虹桥

Fuyun Pavillion 浮云阁

Shangshan Gate 上善门

chrysanthemum 菊花

Baogong Salute to Guests 包公迎宾

Spitting Fire Show 气功喷火

Cockfight 斗鸡

Women’s Polo 女子马球

Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty 大宋·东京梦华

===Questions===

1. What is the location of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden?

2. What’s the role of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden in China?

3. When was Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden opened to the public?

4. Who is the painter of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?

5. Which dynasty does the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' present?

6. What does the name of "Fuyun Pavilion" mean?

7. What are the characteristics of the performance of "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

8. Can you please list some kinds of performance of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden besides "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

===Answers===

1. It is located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province.

2. In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base.

3. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.

4. Zhang Zeduan.

5. Northern Song Dynasty.

6. The name of "Fuyun" has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.

7. It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.

8. Baogong Salutes to Guests, Spitting Fire Show, Cockfight, and Women’s Polo.

===References===

Chen Kang 陈康. (2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥 [Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge]. ''集邮博览'' Philatelic Panorama (07) 62-63.

Gao Jing 高静. (2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化 [Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty]. ''光彩'' Brilliance (04) 16-19.

Li Mei 李梅. (2007). 清明上河园特色建设与长远发展 [Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development]. ''合作经济与科技'' Co-operative Economyand Science (8) 10-12.

Pang Runxin 庞润昕. (2019). 《清明上河图》的建筑艺术 [Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival]. ''景德镇陶瓷大学'' Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute (06) 10-16.

Wei Tuo 韦陀. (2006). 张择端之《清明上河图》 [Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan]. ''紫禁城'' Forbidden City （Z2) 13-15.

Zhang Lu 张璐. (2013). 清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究 [Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of "Qingming River" Song Dynasty Theme Park]. ''赤峰学院学报'' Chi Feng College Journal (05) 23-27.

--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Batik, Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛202070080579 MTI英语笔译==
===Batik(Lanran)===

Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.(Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik,2020）

===History===

According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik,2020）

Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.(Liu Haili, 1986,1)

Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. (Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik2020, Cao Saina, 2020,5）

Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik,2020）

===Types===

Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region. （Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

===Technical Process===

Preparation

Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate. （Liao Li, 2012）

Applying wax

Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife.
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dip-dyeing

Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dewaxing

After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（Liao Li, 2012）

===Materials ===

The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.(Liao Li, 2012)

In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.(Liao Li, 2012)

In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （Liao Li, 2012）

===Patterns===

From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns.
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.（Li Xing, 2020,3)

Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value.

Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(Liao Li, 2012）

===Terms and Expressions===

batik 蜡染

laxie 蜡缬

huixie 灰缬

jiaoxie 绞缬

jiaxie 夹缬

Eryi Records 《二仪实录》

The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》

The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》

single-color dyeing 单色染

multi-color dyeing 复色染

Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院

Polygonum 蓼蓝

Polygonaceae蓼科植物

Isatis tinctoria 松蓝

Cruciferae 十字花科

anil 木蓝属植物

leguminous豆科

safflower红花

madder茜草

yellow gardenia黄色栀子

turmeric姜黄

Rhamnus utility冻绿

===Questions and Answers===

1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?

Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.

2. When did batik appear and become popular?

Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.

3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?

Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.

4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.

5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?

Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.

6. How does “ice patterns” appear?

When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".

7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?

Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.

===References===

Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik 百度百科—蜡染. (2020). https://baike.baidu.com/item/蜡染/306637?fr=aladdin

Liao Li. 廖利.(2012). 蜡染艺术 [Batik Art] 世界大学城 http://www.worlduc.com/blog2012.aspx?bid=13678859

Cao Saina曹赛娜. (2010). 中国蜡染演化趋势与本土活化方式浅探 [The Evolution Trend of Chinese Batik and Its Local Activation Method]. “ 中国美术学院” China Art College 5.

Li Xing, 李欣. (2020). 贵州蜡染发展源流及文化内涵 [Development and Cultural Connotations of Batik in Guizhou]. “ 广东教育学会教育现代化专业委员会2020年第一次学术研讨会论文集” Memoir of the first academic seminar of the Education Modernization Professional Committee of the Guangdong Education Society in 2020 3.

Liu Haili刘海粟. (1986). 贵州蜡染的历史、现状及其发展 [The History, Current Situation and Development of Batik in Guizhou]. “贵州师范大学学报(社会科学版)” Guizhou Normal University Journal(Social and Scientific Edition) (01):1-6.

==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).

Short weapons

The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords.

Long Weapons

The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.(沈志刚，2010).

Historical Origins

Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.

After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.

During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.

The meteor hammer

The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.

Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.(China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009).

Rope Dart

The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.

The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).

Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.

Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.

A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.

These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.(Jwing-Ming Yang ,1999).

It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!

===B.Terms and Expressions===
greataxe 钺

trident 叉

dagger halberd 戟

spiked mace 殳

soft whip 软鞭

bar mace 锏

dagger axe 戈

rope dart 绳镖
===C.Questions===
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?

Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.

2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?

Answer: The Stone Age weapons.

3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?

Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.

4. How to use a meteor hammer?

Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.

===References===

[1] 百度百科.

[2] 沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.

[3] "''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.

[4] Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 08:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲英语笔译 202070080623==

===Terracotta Army===

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑

chariot n. 战车

mausoleum n. 陵墓

Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇

Pit 1 一号坑

Pit 2 二号坑

Pit 3 三号坑

kiln n. 窑

Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹

World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》

===Questions===

1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?

2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?

3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?

4. How the terracotta warriors were made?

5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?

6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?

===Answers===

1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.

2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.

3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future.

4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.

5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

===References===

1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors.

2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.

3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.

4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
'''Penjing'''

Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''A.Categories'''

Penjing generally fall into one of three categories:

Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）

Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''B.History'''

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''C.Techniques and Care'''

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''D. In Other Culture'''

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
*miniature小型的，缩小的
*trimming 修剪
*pruning 剪枝
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代
*pomegranate 石榴
*literali 文人
*clamping 折枝成型

===Question===
*Have you ever raise any plants?
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?

===Answers===
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.
*The Han Dynasty
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.

===References===
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类

[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管

[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋

[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==

===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===

====A. Overview of Douyin and Tik Tok ====
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)

In September 2017, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was launched. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and the content is not shared between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.

What’s more, the mode of both Douyin and Tik Tok is similar. According to Liang’s description of Douyin,“The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second stories.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. (Tian Fengchang, 2020: 15-17) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.

Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spending most of their spare time on the For You Page. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

====B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram ====
As what was mentioned before, Tik Tok or Douyin is somehow similar to Instagram. Despite their alike fundamentals, they have their own distinctive features. Differences between them are as follows:

1. Time limit: Tik Tok currently does not support a long-form video. While IGTV, Instagram’s long-form video feature, allows a video length of up to one hour. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

2. Users: Most Tik Tok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most Tik Tok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)

3. Community: Compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. It allows users to easily connect, build friendships, and collab with each other. Besides, something new and trendy is pushed to the users every week, so as to further increase its attention. Therefore, some creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

====C. Popularity and Effects ====
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Several reasons why Tik Tok is so popular include:

1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy from China, Jimmy Fallon from American, have helped drive Tik Tok's popularity. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

There is no doubt that Tik Tok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a Tik Tok or doing one of the Tik Tok dances. (Wang Ning, 2019: 15-16) Here are some benefits of Tik Tok:

1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of Tik Tok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, Tik Tok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

2. Publicity: With Tik Tok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.

3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on Tik Tok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from Tik Tok. As an engaging platform, Tik Tok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Chinese Red Cross Foundation or intern for companies. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. there are as follows:

1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making users hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later only to find have lost an entire day. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people criticize other people’s videos, while others create videos for deriding someone. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved, thus resulting in life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues. (Tian Xiaofang, 2019)

[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]

===Terms and Expressions===
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音

ByteDance 字节跳动

Short video platforms 短视频平台

Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法

Celebrity endorsements 名人代言

Chinese Red Cross Foundation 中国红十字基金会

Mental health 心理健康

===Questions and Answers===
Q1. What is Tik Tok？

Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?

Q3. Why Tik Tok is so popular around the world?

Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?

Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok?

A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic.

A2: They are two different versions that can be downloaded in different regions -- Douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.

A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing.

A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. Additionally, People can learn new things.

A5: Many worried that Tik Tok is addictive, bad for mental health, and unsafe.

===References===
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019

* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018

* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.

* Tian Fengchang, Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based on Tik Tok][J].''中国商论''[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.

* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].''现代营销(信息版)'',[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.

* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020

* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.

* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.

* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].

* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 202070080649 英语口译==

===Four Buddhist Shrines===

Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity,which ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated and achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)

===Mount Wutai===

Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. It is the ashram of Manjusri Bodhisattva who is the god of wisdom in China. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）

===Mount Putuo===

Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）

===Mount Emei===

Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva who is the god of practice in China. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Just the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(Gan Shude,1998）

===Mount Jiuhua===

Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha who is the god of willingness and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. It was initially named Mount Jiuzi and was latter renamed to Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Li Bai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）

===Terms and Expressions===

Buddhist adj.佛教的

Buddhism n.佛教

shrine n.圣地

pullulate v.大量产生

Gold Wutai 金五台

Silver Putuo 银普陀

Copper Emei 铜峨眉

Iron Jiuhua 铁九华

Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨

Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨

Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨

Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨

reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身

ashram n. 修行的住所

Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼

Sarnath n. 鹿野苑

Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶

Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗

Wanghai Peak 望海峰

Yedou Peak 叶斗峰

Guayue Peak 挂月峰

Splendid Peak 锦绣峰

Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰

Xiantong Temple 显通寺

Nanchan Temple 南禅寺

Foguang Temple 佛光寺

The Great White Tower 大白塔

Puji Temple 普济寺

Fayu Temple 法雨寺

Huiji Temple 惠济寺

The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林

Wannian Temple 万年寺

Baoguo Temple 报国寺

Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺

Golden Summit 金顶

Huacheng Temple 化城寺

Tiantai Temple 天台寺

Longevity Palace 百岁宫

Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺

nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Li Bai

妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白

===Questions===

1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?

2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?

3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectively?

4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?

5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet [[Li Bai]]?--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.

2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.

3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.

4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.

5. Mount Putuo.

6. Mount Jiuhua.

===References===

1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.

2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.

3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.

4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html

5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.

--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:05, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==
===Compass===
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as one of the advanced scientific technologies in ancient China, has made great contributions to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity, use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94).

The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)

In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decrease in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)

In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)

Compass, as a tool for guiding the direction, has played an important role in people's daily life and in the navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It is recorded that Qin emperor used a diving board and compass in his royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass led people to believe that the square plate symbolized the earth and the round disc symbolized the heaven. And around the round disc, there engraved the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 constellations (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a superstition, the compass was endowed with the wishful thinking of the people. Nowadays many people still use the concept of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremonies. (China Week 2003,35)

Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass has played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)

The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until the 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)

[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]

===References===
*"FOUR Great Inventions" [四大发明]. ''China's Foreign Trade'' [《中国外贸》].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012).
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China" [指南针——中国四大发明之一]. ''China Week'' [《中华周刊》]. China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003).
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》 [''Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine'']. 武汉：武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan University Press].1995.

===Terms and Expressions===
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子
*lodestone 天然磁石
*south-governor 司南
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮
*Ding Du 丁度
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘
*dry compass 旱罗盘
*Eight Trigrams 八卦
*gimbal 常平架

===Questions===
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature?
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear?
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass?
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass?
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?

===Answers===
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.
*In the Warring States Period.
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==

''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.

===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his house. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he put many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.

===2. Contents and Themes===
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types:

One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.

Pu Songling himeself suffered from his repeated failure in the imperial examination. In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.

===3. A Typical Story===
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.

===4. Features of the Book===
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning.

4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

===Terms and Expressions===

teahouse 茶馆

scholarly family书香世家

imperial examination 科举制度

underworld 阴曹地府

fox spirit 狐妖

salt merchant 盐商

forgetting to be alien 忘为异类

===Questions===

1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?

2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?

3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?

4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.

5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?

6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?

===Answers===
1. Nearly 500.

2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.

3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.

4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.

5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.

6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.

Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

===References===

==Four Main Philosophic Schools-张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 MTI 英语口译==

===Confucianism===

In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and tried to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.

Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatening the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”).

However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaws in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.

In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation could survive whatever disaster it encountered as well. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.

===Taoism or Daoism===

Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on the development of Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively.

First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts (百家争鸣)”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55).

However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor selected Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.

===Legalism===

Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law at its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.

Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishments according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.

===Mohism===

Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the latter contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.

During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.

1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.

2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).

3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.

4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.

5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.

6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.

7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.

8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.

9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.

10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.

11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.

12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.

13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.

14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.

--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==

====A. Writing Brush====

Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)

In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)

Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

====B. Terms and Expressions====

笔锋 the tip of a wring brush

笔杆 pen-holder

宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush

羊毫笔 goat-hair brush

鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush

====C. Questions====

1. What are the four treasures of the study?

2. How long is the history of writing brush?

3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?

4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?

===Answers===

1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.

2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.

3. In the Warring States periods.

4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.

===References===

*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.

*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.

*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.

*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.

==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==

===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===

===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.

The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)

The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.

The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.

===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.

Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]

In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.

===The Legendary of Nian===

According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)).

Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)).

Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.

===Terms and Expressions===

Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海

Yandi 炎帝

Shanhaijing 山海经

Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山

Nüwa 女娃

Eastern Sea 东海

the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟

Zhang River 漳水

The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水

Emperor Yao 尧帝

Nian 年

new year 新年

===Questions===
1.Who is Nüwa?

She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.

2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?

The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.

3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?

Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.
===References===

[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.

[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.

[3]百度百科

[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian.

[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review.

[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168.

--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

==Face Changing in Sichuan Opera - Zhou Yiwen 周艺文 202070080629 英语笔译==

===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===

1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics

Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)

2.The origin and development of face changing

Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)

Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)

It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)

3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu

The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people's perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

4.Crafting materials for facial makeup

As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)

5.Three main types of Lianpu

There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)

===Terms and Expressions===

Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧

Face changing n.变脸

Lian pu 脸谱

Guan Yu 关羽

Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》

Liu Bei 刘备

Cao Cao 曹操

Qin Hui 秦桧

Yan Song 严嵩

Sima Yi 司马懿

Bao Zhenhg 包拯

Li Kui 李逵

Zhang Fei 张飞

Dian Wei 典韦

Pang Juan 庞涓

Xu Shiying 徐世英

Dou Erdun 窦尔敦

Cheng Yaojin 程咬金

Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜

Sun Wukong, 孙悟空

Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王

Peng Denghuai 彭登怀

Andy Lau 刘德华

Wiping Mask 抹脸

Blowing Mask 吹脸

Pulling Mask 扯脸

===Questions===
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?

2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?

3.How long is the history of face changing?

4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?

5.What are the three types of face changes?

===Answers===

1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).

2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.

3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).

4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.

5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.

===References===

Luo Yue. 罗玥. (2019). 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术 [On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''戏剧之家'' Home Drama13:29-30.

Wang Huaqing. 王华清. (2017). 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征 [Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''设计'' Design

Xiao Yuanjin. 萧源锦. (2013). 神奇莫测的川剧变脸 [Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera]. ''文史杂志'' Journal of Literature and History 2: 54-55.

百度百科Baidu Baike

https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml

https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==

===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System.

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:

1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers.

2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates' talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn't have the power of appointment.

3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Nine-Grade Official Selection System, image from Baike. Click [https://baike.baidu.com/pic/%E4%B9%9D%E5%93%81%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%B6/1711003/1/77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f?fr=lemma&ct=single#aid=1&pic=77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f.jpg] for original source.]]

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Terms and Expressions===

Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制

Recommendatory System 察举制

Rectifier 中正官

Senior Rectifier 大中正官

Junior Rectifier 小中正官

Region 州

Commandery 郡

superior-superior 上上

superior-intermediary 上中

superior-inferior 上下

intermediary-superior 中上

intermediary-intermediary 中中

intermediary-inferior 中下

inferior-superior 下上

inferior-intermediary 下中

and inferior-inferior 下下

Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书

Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》

===Questions===

1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

2. What does a Rectifier do?

3. What are the nine ranks?

4. What's the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

===Answers===

1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.

2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.

3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.

4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

===References===

1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.

2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.

3. Deng Zhongping 邓中平. (2010). 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示 [Analysis of ancient Chinese system for selecting officers and enlightenment].西南政法大学 Southwest University of Political Science and Law.

==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译 ==

===Introduction===

From then till now, windows at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural component-window, affects not only the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, but also the enchantment of a building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable constituent part in their lives. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)

Ancient Chinese windows developed a unique style of its own, and was fundamentally different from any other school of architecture in the world. Windows has always been the object of humanity's pursuit of beauty. More than two thousands years ago, Laozi made a brilliant exposition on this: "In order to build a house, although we must establish solid walls, we must also provide doors and windows; so both the impenetrable and penetrable are essential to useful building." What tis meant was that what was visible was merely the physical setting, but what really made a structure useful was its invisible space. (Classic of Way and Its Powers, 1996, 56)

This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in windows in detail. Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in different dynasties in China. Lattice is also called geyan to folklore(格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2006, 47)

===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]

The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)

===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]

In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. This kind of lattice is the most luxuriant and delicate both in its structure and color scheme. Therefore, it is obviously costly and time-consuming in production and ordinary people are unable to afford it. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)

===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===

[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]

This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）

===Swastika lattice===

[[File: Windows 5-1.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]

Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.（Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 300)

===Fret lattice===

[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]

Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)

===The cracked ice lattice===

[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]

The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, with all things are reviving and full of vitality. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and merry wishes will be realized immediately. This kind of lattice is often applied in private gardens, because it blends well with the peaceful sceneries and always renders silent hope and comforting to whoever have a walk there. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)

===The H-shaped Lattice===

[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]

The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. Therefore, this formal lattice is often seen in houses of scholars or officials, a reminder that their manner and speech should be well-disciplined no matter in the public or in private. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)

===The well-shaped lattice===

[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]

The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

===Conclusion===

"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)

Nowadays, people living in cramped quarters have become almost oblivious to the aesthetics of their dwellings. The windows serve no other function than that of ventilation and lighting. In contrast, scholars or even ordinary peoples in ancient China living in dilapidated houses were obviously superior to us in terms of their taste and the efforts they made in improving the residential environment. I consider this is one of the greatest regrets in our modern life and by writing this paper, I aim to arouse people's appreciation and enhance understanding of the splendid architectural culture created by our ancestors and let them be our silent companies to enrich our lives. (Ma Weidu, 2006, 9-10)

===Vocabulary List===

lattice 格心

diamond lattice 菱花

the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花

the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花

a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花

swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花

fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花

the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花

the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花

===Questions===

1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows?

2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples?

3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice?

===Answers===

1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight.

2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples.

3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.

===Reference===

*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.

*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.

*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.

*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.

*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press

*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts

* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review.

* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 04:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 202070080631 MTI==

===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===

As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)

The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system. Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription.(Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020, 18)

Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011, 179)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]

Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012, 409)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]

There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays. Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020, 62)

Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.(Wang Yi, 2019, 106)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.

Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.

Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.

Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).

Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.

Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.

Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411.

Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).

Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy

===Terms and Expressions===
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间

Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗

xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗

Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派

Donglin School 东林党

Zhu Xi 朱熹

Zhou Shi 周式

Zhang Shi 张栻

Qiandao Reign 乾道年间

Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛

Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁

Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭

Yushu Library 御书楼

Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁

Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂

Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂

the Banxue Building 半学斋

the Hexi Platform 赫曦台

===Questions===
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?

2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?

3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?

4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?

5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?

6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?

===Answers===
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).

2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.

3.The Lecture Hall.

4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony.

5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning.

6.It held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.

--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633 MTI英语笔译==

===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===

[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55).

The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussions in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view is that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in ''The History of Song Dynasty'' (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believe that jiaozi developes from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” is regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialize in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there is another opinion that it's the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promotes the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin is that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.

The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835).

Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22).

Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).

The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).

Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.

===References===

*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.

*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.

*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.

*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.

*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.

*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.

*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.

*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.

*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.

===Terms and Expressions===
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"

|-

|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱

|-

|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期

|-

|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺

|-

|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树

|-

|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田

|-

|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年

|-

|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子

|}

===Questions===

1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?

2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?

3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?

4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?

5.What achievements did jiaozi make?

6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?

===Answers===
1.Jiaozi.

2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.

3.Merchants.

4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).

5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.

6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.

==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003 - Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===

Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]

[[File: makeup.jpg]]

Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.

It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.

In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.

From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]

Pale skin was and still is a sign of aristocracy in the East. Women literally put white on their face, their skin had to be snow-white, so they often went under umbrellas so as not to tan.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====I.Base make up====

1.Lead powder

In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

2.Rice powder

In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.

“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

====II.Color make up====

If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

1.Blush

Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).Blush in ancient China was bright and rich (this contrasted with white skin), which showed the Almighty that they were healthy and happy.

Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.

[[File: blush.jpg]]

2.Lipsctick

Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.

[[File: lipstick.jpg]]

3.Eyebrows

It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.Eyebrows are a separate and one of the favorite parts of makeup. They had to be clear and black. The women shaved off their eyebrows and then dyed the eyebrows in a thin arc or made them straight. It was customary for warriors to dye their eyebrows in such a way as to give the image a more severe look.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.

In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.

[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]

====III.Tang dynasty make up====

[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]

1.Early Tang Dynasty

The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.

In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.

*White make up

Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

*Red make up

In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.

As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty

After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.

For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.

3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty

After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.

In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.

However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.

The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.

4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times

Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.

Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.

====References====

*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

====Terms and Expressions====

*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.

*胭脂 - rouge

*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick

*黛 - black eyebrow dye

====Questions====

1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?

2.Why is lead powder dangerous?

3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?

4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?

5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?

6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?

====Answers====

1.Rice powder.

2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.

3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.

5.White make up and Red make up.

6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.

20201215 cultexam 4

2020-12-21T08:09:52Z

Zhang Hui: /* Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮英语笔译 202070080620==

===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"

===Zhaozhou Bridge===
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）

In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）

===Luoyang Bridge===
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)

The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)

It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)

There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)

===Lugou Bridge===
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）

The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）

As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）

===Guangji Bridge===
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)

Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)

There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)

The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)

The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)

Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)

===References===
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.

Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.

Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.

Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.

===Terms and expressions===

石拱桥 stone arch bridge

望柱 baluster

桥基 settlement

泄洪 flood discharging

桥墩 pier

抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block

华表Chinese totem pillar

栏杆 balustrade

燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin

启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge

===Questions===

1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?

2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?

3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?

4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?
===Answers===
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.

2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.

3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.

4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Milk Tea - Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼 MTI英语笔译 202070080621==

====Milk Tea====

We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”

Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）

So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!

====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====

Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.

====B.The Development of Milk Tea====

Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）

Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.

In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.

====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====

====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====

When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.

The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）

The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.

====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====

The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)

====3.Indian Masala Chai====

Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）

====C.Milk Tea and Health====

====1.Advantages====

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.

====2.Disadvantages====

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

====References====

1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15

2.《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食

3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》

4.茶颜悦色密码（2020）国企管理,(20)68.

====Terms and Expressions====

Milk tea 奶茶

Spice 香辛料

Rudiment 雏形

Sexytea 茶颜悦色

Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁

Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶

Cholesterol 胆固醇

Hyperglycemia 高血糖

Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原

Maple sugar 枫糖

Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶

Internet celebrity city网红城市

Pecans 碧根果

Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶

Hyperlipidemia 高血脂

Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病

Gastrointestinal 肠胃的

====Questions====

1.What is the origin of milk tea?

Mongolia Milk Tea.

2.Who promoted milk tea?

British colonists.

3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?

Britain.

4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?

Sexytea.

5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?

No.

6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.

7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良- MTI 英语笔译-202070080578==

===Introduction===

Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty (Wei Tuo 2006,13)

In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)

The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)

There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)

The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)

The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three floors hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)

Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion. (Zhang Lu 2013, 26)

During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''. This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)

Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)

There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salutes to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility. (Gao Jing 2010,16)

Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color. (Pang Runxin 2019,10)

===Terms and Expressions===

Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden 清明上河园

''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' 《清明上河图》

Rainbow Bridge 虹桥

Fuyun Pavillion 浮云阁

Shangshan Gate 上善门

chrysanthemum 菊花

Baogong Salute to Guests 包公迎宾

Spitting Fire Show 气功喷火

Cockfight 斗鸡

Women’s Polo 女子马球

Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty 大宋·东京梦华

===Questions===

1. What is the location of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden?

2. What’s the role of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden in China?

3. When was Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden opened to the public?

4. Who is the painter of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?

5. Which dynasty does the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' present?

6. What does the name of "Fuyun Pavilion" mean?

7. What are the characteristics of the performance of "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

8. Can you please list some kinds of performance of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden besides "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

===Answers===

1. It is located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province.

2. In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base.

3. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.

4. Zhang Zeduan.

5. Northern Song Dynasty.

6. The name of "Fuyun" has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.

7. It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.

8. Baogong Salutes to Guests, Spitting Fire Show, Cockfight, and Women’s Polo.

===References===

Chen Kang 陈康. (2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥 [Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge]. ''集邮博览'' Philatelic Panorama (07) 62-63.

Gao Jing 高静. (2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化 [Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty]. ''光彩'' Brilliance (04) 16-19.

Li Mei 李梅. (2007). 清明上河园特色建设与长远发展 [Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development]. ''合作经济与科技'' Co-operative Economyand Science (8) 10-12.

Pang Runxin 庞润昕. (2019). 《清明上河图》的建筑艺术 [Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival]. ''景德镇陶瓷大学'' Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute (06) 10-16.

Wei Tuo 韦陀. (2006). 张择端之《清明上河图》 [Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan]. ''紫禁城'' Forbidden City （Z2) 13-15.

Zhang Lu 张璐. (2013). 清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究 [Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of "Qingming River" Song Dynasty Theme Park]. ''赤峰学院学报'' Chi Feng College Journal (05) 23-27.

--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Batik, Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛202070080579 MTI英语笔译==
===Batik(Lanran)===

Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.(Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik,2020）

===History===

According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.(Liu Haili, 1986,1)

Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. (Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik, Cao Saina, 2020,5）

Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.

===Types===

Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region. （Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

===Technical Process===

Preparation

Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate. （Liao Li, 2012）

Applying wax

Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife.
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dip-dyeing

Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dewaxing

After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（Liao Li, 2012）

===Materials ===

The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.(Liao Li, 2012)

In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.(Liao Li, 2012)

In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （Liao Li, 2012）

===Patterns===

From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns.
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.（Li Xing, 2020,3)

Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value.

Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(Liao Li, 2012）

===Terms and Expressions===

batik 蜡染

laxie 蜡缬

huixie 灰缬

jiaoxie 绞缬

jiaxie 夹缬

Eryi Records 《二仪实录》

The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》

The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》

single-color dyeing 单色染

multi-color dyeing 复色染

Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院

Polygonum 蓼蓝

Polygonaceae蓼科植物

Isatis tinctoria 松蓝

Cruciferae 十字花科

anil 木蓝属植物

leguminous豆科

safflower红花

madder茜草

yellow gardenia黄色栀子

turmeric姜黄

Rhamnus utility冻绿

===Questions and Answers===

1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?

Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.

2. When did batik appear and become popular?

Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.

3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?

Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.

4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.

5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?

Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.

6. How does “ice patterns” appear?

When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".

7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?

Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.

===References===

Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik 百度百科—蜡染. (2020). https://baike.baidu.com/item/蜡染/306637?fr=aladdin

Liao Li. 廖利.(2012). 蜡染艺术 [Batik Art] 世界大学城 http://www.worlduc.com/blog2012.aspx?bid=13678859

Cao Saina曹赛娜. (2010). 中国蜡染演化趋势与本土活化方式浅探 [The Evolution Trend of Chinese Batik and Its Local Activation Method]. “ 中国美术学院” China Art College 5.

Li Xing, 李欣. (2020). 贵州蜡染发展源流及文化内涵 [Development and Cultural Connotations of Batik in Guizhou]. “ 广东教育学会教育现代化专业委员会2020年第一次学术研讨会论文集” Memoir of the first academic seminar of the Education Modernization Professional Committee of the Guangdong Education Society in 2020 3.

Liu Haili刘海粟. (1986). 贵州蜡染的历史、现状及其发展 [The History, Current Situation and Development of Batik in Guizhou]. “贵州师范大学学报(社会科学版)” Guizhou Normal University Journal(Social and Scientific Edition) (01):1-6.

==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).

Short weapons

The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords.

Long Weapons

The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.(沈志刚，2010).

Historical Origins

Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.

After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.

During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.

The meteor hammer

The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.

Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.(China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009).

Rope Dart

The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.

The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).

Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.

Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.

A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.

These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.(Jwing-Ming Yang ,1999).

It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!

===B.Terms and Expressions===
greataxe 钺

trident 叉

dagger halberd 戟

spiked mace 殳

soft whip 软鞭

bar mace 锏

dagger axe 戈

rope dart 绳镖
===C.Questions===
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?

Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.

2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?

Answer: The Stone Age weapons.

3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?

Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.

4. How to use a meteor hammer?

Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

[1] 百度百科.

[2] 沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.

[3] "''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.

[4] Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 08:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲英语笔译 202070080623==

===Terracotta Army===

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑

chariot n. 战车

mausoleum n. 陵墓

Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇

Pit 1 一号坑

Pit 2 二号坑

Pit 3 三号坑

kiln n. 窑

Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹

World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》

===Questions===

1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?

2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?

3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?

4. How the terracotta warriors were made?

5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?

6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?

===Answers===

1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.

2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.

3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future.

4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.

5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

===References===

1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors.

2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.

3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.

4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
'''Penjing'''

Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''A.Categories'''

Penjing generally fall into one of three categories:

Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）

Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''B.History'''

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''C.Techniques and Care'''

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''D. In Other Culture'''

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
*miniature小型的，缩小的
*trimming 修剪
*pruning 剪枝
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代
*pomegranate 石榴
*literali 文人
*clamping 折枝成型

===Question===
*Have you ever raise any plants?
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?

===Answers===
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.
*The Han Dynasty
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.

===References===
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类

[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管

[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋

[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==

===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===

====A. Overview of Douyin and Tik Tok ====
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)

In September 2017, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was launched. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and the content is not shared between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.

What’s more, the mode of both Douyin and Tik Tok is similar. According to Liang’s description of Douyin,“The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second stories.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. (Tian Fengchang, 2020: 15-17) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.

Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spending most of their spare time on the For You Page. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

====B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram ====
As what was mentioned before, Tik Tok or Douyin is somehow similar to Instagram. Despite their alike fundamentals, they have their own distinctive features. Differences between them are as follows:

1. Time limit: Tik Tok currently does not support a long-form video. While IGTV, Instagram’s long-form video feature, allows a video length of up to one hour. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

2. Users: Most Tik Tok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most Tik Tok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)

3. Community: Compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. It allows users to easily connect, build friendships, and collab with each other. Besides, something new and trendy is pushed to the users every week, so as to further increase its attention. Therefore, some creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

====C. Popularity and Effects ====
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Several reasons why Tik Tok is so popular include:

1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy from China, Jimmy Fallon from American, have helped drive Tik Tok's popularity. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

There is no doubt that Tik Tok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a Tik Tok or doing one of the Tik Tok dances. (Wang Ning, 2019: 15-16) Here are some benefits of Tik Tok:

1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of Tik Tok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, Tik Tok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

2. Publicity: With Tik Tok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.

3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on Tik Tok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from Tik Tok. As an engaging platform, Tik Tok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Chinese Red Cross Foundation or intern for companies. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. there are as follows:

1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making users hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later only to find have lost an entire day. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people criticize other people’s videos, while others create videos for deriding someone. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved, thus resulting in life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues. (Tian Xiaofang, 2019)

[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]

===Terms and Expressions===
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音

ByteDance 字节跳动

Short video platforms 短视频平台

Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法

Celebrity endorsements 名人代言

Chinese Red Cross Foundation 中国红十字基金会

Mental health 心理健康

===Questions and Answers===
Q1. What is Tik Tok？

Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?

Q3. Why Tik Tok is so popular around the world?

Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?

Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok?

A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic.

A2: They are two different versions that can be downloaded in different regions -- Douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.

A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing.

A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. Additionally, People can learn new things.

A5: Many worried that Tik Tok is addictive, bad for mental health, and unsafe.

===References===
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019

* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018

* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.

* Tian Fengchang, Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based on Tik Tok][J].''中国商论''[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.

* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].''现代营销(信息版)'',[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.

* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020

* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.

* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.

* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].

* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 202070080649 英语口译==

===Four Buddhist Shrines===

Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity,which ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated and achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)

===Mount Wutai===

Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. It is the ashram of Manjusri Bodhisattva who is the god of wisdom in China. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）

===Mount Putuo===

Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）

===Mount Emei===

Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva who is the god of practice in China. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Just the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(Gan Shude,1998）

===Mount Jiuhua===

Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha who is the god of willingness and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. It was initially named Mount Jiuzi and was latter renamed to Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Li Bai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）

===Terms and Expressions===

Buddhist adj.佛教的

Buddhism n.佛教

shrine n.圣地

pullulate v.大量产生

Gold Wutai 金五台

Silver Putuo 银普陀

Copper Emei 铜峨眉

Iron Jiuhua 铁九华

Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨

Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨

Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨

Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨

reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身

ashram n. 修行的住所

Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼

Sarnath n. 鹿野苑

Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶

Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗

Wanghai Peak 望海峰

Yedou Peak 叶斗峰

Guayue Peak 挂月峰

Splendid Peak 锦绣峰

Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰

Xiantong Temple 显通寺

Nanchan Temple 南禅寺

Foguang Temple 佛光寺

The Great White Tower 大白塔

Puji Temple 普济寺

Fayu Temple 法雨寺

Huiji Temple 惠济寺

The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林

Wannian Temple 万年寺

Baoguo Temple 报国寺

Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺

Golden Summit 金顶

Huacheng Temple 化城寺

Tiantai Temple 天台寺

Longevity Palace 百岁宫

Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺

nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Li Bai

妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白

===Questions===

1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?

2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?

3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectively?

4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?

5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet [[Li Bai]]?--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.

2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.

3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.

4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.

5. Mount Putuo.

6. Mount Jiuhua.

===References===

1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.

2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.

3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.

4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html

5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.

--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:05, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==
===Compass===
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as one of the advanced scientific technologies in ancient China, has made great contributions to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity, use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94).

The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)

In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decrease in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)

In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)

Compass, as a tool for guiding the direction, has played an important role in people's daily life and in the navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It is recorded that Qin emperor used a diving board and compass in his royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass led people to believe that the square plate symbolized the earth and the round disc symbolized the heaven. And around the round disc, there engraved the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 constellations (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a superstition, the compass was endowed with the wishful thinking of the people. Nowadays many people still use the concept of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremonies. (China Week 2003,35)

Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass has played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)

The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until the 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)

[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]

===References===
*"FOUR Great Inventions" [四大发明]. ''China's Foreign Trade'' [《中国外贸》].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012).
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China" [指南针——中国四大发明之一]. ''China Week'' [《中华周刊》]. China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003).
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》 [''Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine'']. 武汉：武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan University Press].1995.

===Terms and Expressions===
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子
*lodestone 天然磁石
*south-governor 司南
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮
*Ding Du 丁度
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘
*dry compass 旱罗盘
*Eight Trigrams 八卦
*gimbal 常平架

===Questions===
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature?
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear?
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass?
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass?
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?

===Answers===
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.
*In the Warring States Period.
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==

''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.

===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his house. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he put many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.

===2. Contents and Themes===
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types:

One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.

Pu Songling himeself suffered from his repeated failure in the imperial examination. In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.

===3. A Typical Story===
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.

===4. Features of the Book===
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning.

4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

===Terms and Expressions===

teahouse 茶馆

scholarly family书香世家

imperial examination 科举制度

underworld 阴曹地府

fox spirit 狐妖

salt merchant 盐商

forgetting to be alien 忘为异类

===Questions===

1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?

2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?

3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?

4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.

5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?

6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?

===Answers===
1. Nearly 500.

2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.

3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.

4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.

5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.

6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.

Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

===References===

==Four Main Philosophic Schools-张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 MTI 英语口译==

===Confucianism===

In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and tried to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.

Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatening the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”).

However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaws in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.

In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation could survive whatever disaster it encountered as well. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.

===Taoism or Daoism===

Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on the development of Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively.

First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts (百家争鸣)”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55).

However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor selected Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.

===Legalism===

Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law at its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.

Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishments according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.

===Mohism===

Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the latter contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.

During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.

1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.

2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).

3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.

4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.

5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.

6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.

7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.

8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.

9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.

10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.

11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.

12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.

13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.

14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.

--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==

====A. Writing Brush====

Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)

In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)

Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

====B. Terms and Expressions====

笔锋 the tip of a wring brush

笔杆 pen-holder

宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush

羊毫笔 goat-hair brush

鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush

====C. Questions====

1. What are the four treasures of the study?

2. How long is the history of writing brush?

3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?

4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?

===Answers===

1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.

2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.

3. In the Warring States periods.

4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.

===References===

*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.

*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.

*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.

*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.

==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==

===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===

===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.

The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)

The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.

The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.

===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.

Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]

In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.

===The Legendary of Nian===

According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)).

Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)).

Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.

===Terms and Expressions===

Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海

Yandi 炎帝

Shanhaijing 山海经

Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山

Nüwa 女娃

Eastern Sea 东海

the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟

Zhang River 漳水

The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水

Emperor Yao 尧帝

Nian 年

new year 新年

===Questions===
1.Who is Nüwa?

She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.

2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?

The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.

3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?

Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.
===References===

[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.

[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.

[3]百度百科

[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian.

[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review.

[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168.

--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

==Face Changing in Sichuan Opera - Zhou Yiwen 周艺文 202070080629 英语笔译==

===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===

1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics

Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)

2.The origin and development of face changing

Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)

Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)

It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)

3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu

The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people's perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

4.Crafting materials for facial makeup

As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)

5.Three main types of Lianpu

There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)

===Terms and Expressions===

Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧

Face changing n.变脸

Lian pu 脸谱

Guan Yu 关羽

Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》

Liu Bei 刘备

Cao Cao 曹操

Qin Hui 秦桧

Yan Song 严嵩

Sima Yi 司马懿

Bao Zhenhg 包拯

Li Kui 李逵

Zhang Fei 张飞

Dian Wei 典韦

Pang Juan 庞涓

Xu Shiying 徐世英

Dou Erdun 窦尔敦

Cheng Yaojin 程咬金

Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜

Sun Wukong, 孙悟空

Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王

Peng Denghuai 彭登怀

Andy Lau 刘德华

Wiping Mask 抹脸

Blowing Mask 吹脸

Pulling Mask 扯脸

===Questions===
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?

2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?

3.How long is the history of face changing?

4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?

5.What are the three types of face changes?

===Answers===

1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).

2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.

3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).

4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.

5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.

===References===

Luo Yue. 罗玥. (2019). 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术 [On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''戏剧之家'' Home Drama13:29-30.

Wang Huaqing. 王华清. (2017). 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征 [Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''设计'' Design

Xiao Yuanjin. 萧源锦. (2013). 神奇莫测的川剧变脸 [Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera]. ''文史杂志'' Journal of Literature and History 2: 54-55.

百度百科Baidu Baike

https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml

https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==

===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System.

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:

1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers.

2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates' talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn't have the power of appointment.

3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Nine-Grade Official Selection System, image from Baike. Click [https://baike.baidu.com/pic/%E4%B9%9D%E5%93%81%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%B6/1711003/1/77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f?fr=lemma&ct=single#aid=1&pic=77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f.jpg] for original source.]]

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Terms and Expressions===

Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制

Recommendatory System 察举制

Rectifier 中正官

Senior Rectifier 大中正官

Junior Rectifier 小中正官

Region 州

Commandery 郡

superior-superior 上上

superior-intermediary 上中

superior-inferior 上下

intermediary-superior 中上

intermediary-intermediary 中中

intermediary-inferior 中下

inferior-superior 下上

inferior-intermediary 下中

and inferior-inferior 下下

Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书

Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》

===Questions===

1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

2. What does a Rectifier do?

3. What are the nine ranks?

4. What's the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

===Answers===

1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.

2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.

3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.

4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

===References===

1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.

2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.

3. Deng Zhongping 邓中平. (2010). 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示 [Analysis of ancient Chinese system for selecting officers and enlightenment].西南政法大学 Southwest University of Political Science and Law.

==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译 ==

===Introduction===

From then till now, windows at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural component-window, affects not only the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, but also the enchantment of a building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable constituent part in their lives. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)

Ancient Chinese windows developed a unique style of its own, and was fundamentally different from any other school of architecture in the world. Windows has always been the object of humanity's pursuit of beauty. More than two thousands years ago, Laozi made a brilliant exposition on this: "In order to build a house, although we must establish solid walls, we must also provide doors and windows; so both the impenetrable and penetrable are essential to useful building." What tis meant was that what was visible was merely the physical setting, but what really made a structure useful was its invisible space. (Classic of Way and Its Powers, 1996, 56)

This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in windows in detail. Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in different dynasties in China. Lattice is also called geyan to folklore(格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2006, 47)

===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]

The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)

===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]

In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. This kind of lattice is the most luxuriant and delicate both in its structure and color scheme. Therefore, it is obviously costly and time-consuming in production and ordinary people are unable to afford it. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)

===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===

[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]

This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）

===Swastika lattice===

[[File: Windows 5-1.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]

Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.（Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 300)

===Fret lattice===

[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]

Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)

===The cracked ice lattice===

[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]

The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, with all things are reviving and full of vitality. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and merry wishes will be realized immediately. This kind of lattice is often applied in private gardens, because it blends well with the peaceful sceneries and always renders silent hope and comforting to whoever have a walk there. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)

===The H-shaped Lattice===

[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]

The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. Therefore, this formal lattice is often seen in houses of scholars or officials, a reminder that their manner and speech should be well-disciplined no matter in the public or in private. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)

===The well-shaped lattice===

[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]

The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

===Conclusion===

"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)

Nowadays, people living in cramped quarters have become almost oblivious to the aesthetics of their dwellings. The windows serve no other function than that of ventilation and lighting. In contrast, scholars or even ordinary peoples in ancient China living in dilapidated houses were obviously superior to us in terms of their taste and the efforts they made in improving the residential environment. I consider this is one of the greatest regrets in our modern life and by writing this paper, I aim to arouse people's appreciation and enhance understanding of the splendid architectural culture created by our ancestors and let them be our silent companies to enrich our lives. (Ma Weidu, 2006, 9-10)

===Vocabulary List===

lattice 格心

diamond lattice 菱花

the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花

the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花

a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花

swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花

fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花

the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花

the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花

===Questions===

1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows?

2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples?

3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice?

===Answers===

1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight.

2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples.

3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.

===Reference===

*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.

*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.

*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.

*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.

*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press

*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts

* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review.

* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 04:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 202070080631 MTI==

===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===

As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)

The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system. Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription.(Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020, 18)

Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011, 179)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]

Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012, 409)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]

There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays. Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020, 62)

Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.(Wang Yi, 2019, 106)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.

Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.

Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.

Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).

Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.

Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.

Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411.

Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).

Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy

===Terms and Expressions===
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间

Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗

xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗

Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派

Donglin School 东林党

Zhu Xi 朱熹

Zhou Shi 周式

Zhang Shi 张栻

Qiandao Reign 乾道年间

Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛

Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁

Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭

Yushu Library 御书楼

Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁

Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂

Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂

the Banxue Building 半学斋

the Hexi Platform 赫曦台

===Questions===
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?

2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?

3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?

4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?

5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?

6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?

===Answers===
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).

2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.

3.The Lecture Hall.

4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony.

5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning.

6.It held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.

--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633 MTI英语笔译==

===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===

[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55).

The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussions in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view is that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in ''The History of Song Dynasty'' (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believe that jiaozi developes from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” is regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialize in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there is another opinion that it's the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promotes the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin is that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.

The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835).

Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22).

Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).

The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).

Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.

===References===

*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.

*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.

*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.

*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.

*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.

*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.

*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.

*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.

*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.

===Terms and Expressions===
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"

|-

|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱

|-

|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期

|-

|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺

|-

|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树

|-

|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田

|-

|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年

|-

|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子

|}

===Questions===

1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?

2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?

3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?

4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?

5.What achievements did jiaozi make?

6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?

===Answers===
1.Jiaozi.

2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.

3.Merchants.

4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).

5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.

6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.

==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003 - Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===

Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]

[[File: makeup.jpg]]

Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.

It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.

In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.

From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]

Pale skin was and still is a sign of aristocracy in the East. Women literally put white on their face, their skin had to be snow-white, so they often went under umbrellas so as not to tan.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====I.Base make up====

1.Lead powder

In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

2.Rice powder

In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.

“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

====II.Color make up====

If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

1.Blush

Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).Blush in ancient China was bright and rich (this contrasted with white skin), which showed the Almighty that they were healthy and happy.

Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.

[[File: blush.jpg]]

2.Lipsctick

Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.

[[File: lipstick.jpg]]

3.Eyebrows

It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.Eyebrows are a separate and one of the favorite parts of makeup. They had to be clear and black. The women shaved off their eyebrows and then dyed the eyebrows in a thin arc or made them straight. It was customary for warriors to dye their eyebrows in such a way as to give the image a more severe look.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.

In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.

[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]

====III.Tang dynasty make up====

[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]

1.Early Tang Dynasty

The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.

In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.

*White make up

Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

*Red make up

In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.

As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty

After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.

For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.

3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty

After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.

In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.

However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.

The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.

4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times

Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.

Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.

====References====

*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

====Terms and Expressions====

*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.

*胭脂 - rouge

*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick

*黛 - black eyebrow dye

====Questions====

1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?

2.Why is lead powder dangerous?

3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?

4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?

5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?

6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?

====Answers====

1.Rice powder.

2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.

3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.

5.White make up and Red make up.

6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.

20201215 cultexam 4

2020-12-21T08:07:48Z

Zhang Hui: /* Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮英语笔译 202070080620==

===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"

===Zhaozhou Bridge===
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）

In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）

===Luoyang Bridge===
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)

The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)

It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)

There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)

===Lugou Bridge===
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）

The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）

As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）

===Guangji Bridge===
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)

Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)

There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)

The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)

The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)

Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)

===References===
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.

Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.

Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.

Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.

===Terms and expressions===

石拱桥 stone arch bridge

望柱 baluster

桥基 settlement

泄洪 flood discharging

桥墩 pier

抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block

华表Chinese totem pillar

栏杆 balustrade

燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin

启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge

===Questions===

1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?

2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?

3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?

4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?
===Answers===
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.

2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.

3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.

4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Milk Tea - Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼 MTI英语笔译 202070080621==

====Milk Tea====

We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”

Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）

So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!

====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====

Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.

====B.The Development of Milk Tea====

Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）

Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.

In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.

====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====

====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====

When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.

The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）

The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.

====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====

The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)

====3.Indian Masala Chai====

Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）

====C.Milk Tea and Health====

====1.Advantages====

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.

====2.Disadvantages====

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

====References====

1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15

2.《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食

3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》

4.茶颜悦色密码（2020）国企管理,(20)68.

====Terms and Expressions====

Milk tea 奶茶

Spice 香辛料

Rudiment 雏形

Sexytea 茶颜悦色

Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁

Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶

Cholesterol 胆固醇

Hyperglycemia 高血糖

Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原

Maple sugar 枫糖

Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶

Internet celebrity city网红城市

Pecans 碧根果

Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶

Hyperlipidemia 高血脂

Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病

Gastrointestinal 肠胃的

====Questions====

1.What is the origin of milk tea?

Mongolia Milk Tea.

2.Who promoted milk tea?

British colonists.

3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?

Britain.

4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?

Sexytea.

5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?

No.

6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.

7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良- MTI 英语笔译-202070080578==

===Introduction===

Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty (Wei Tuo 2006,13)

In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998. (Wei Tuo 2006,13)

The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time. (Zhang Lu 2013,25)

There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)

The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges. (Chen Kang 2006,62)

The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three floors hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)

Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion. (Zhang Lu 2013, 26)

During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''. This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life. (Gao Jing 2010,17)

Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life. (Zhang Lu 2013,24)

There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salutes to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility. (Gao Jing 2010,16)

Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color. (Pang Runxin 2019,10)

===Terms and Expressions===

Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden 清明上河园

''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' 《清明上河图》

Rainbow Bridge 虹桥

Fuyun Pavillion 浮云阁

Shangshan Gate 上善门

chrysanthemum 菊花

Baogong Salute to Guests 包公迎宾

Spitting Fire Show 气功喷火

Cockfight 斗鸡

Women’s Polo 女子马球

Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty 大宋·东京梦华

===Questions===

1. What is the location of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden?

2. What’s the role of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden in China?

3. When was Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden opened to the public?

4. Who is the painter of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?

5. Which dynasty does the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' present?

6. What does the name of "Fuyun Pavilion" mean?

7. What are the characteristics of the performance of "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

8. Can you please list some kinds of performance of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden besides "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

===Answers===

1. It is located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province.

2. In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base.

3. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.

4. Zhang Zeduan.

5. Northern Song Dynasty.

6. The name of "Fuyun" has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.

7. It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.

8. Baogong Salutes to Guests, Spitting Fire Show, Cockfight, and Women’s Polo.

===References===

Chen Kang 陈康. (2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥 [Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge]. ''集邮博览'' Philatelic Panorama (07) 62-63.

Gao Jing 高静. (2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化 [Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty]. ''光彩'' Brilliance (04) 16-19.

Li Mei 李梅. (2007). 清明上河园特色建设与长远发展 [Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development]. ''合作经济与科技'' Co-operative Economyand Science (8) 10-12.

Pang Runxin 庞润昕. (2019). 《清明上河图》的建筑艺术 [Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival]. ''景德镇陶瓷大学'' Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute (06) 10-16.

Wei Tuo 韦陀. (2006). 张择端之《清明上河图》 [Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan]. ''紫禁城'' Forbidden City （Z2) 13-15.

Zhang Lu 张璐. (2013). 清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究 [Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of "Qingming River" Song Dynasty Theme Park]. ''赤峰学院学报'' Chi Feng College Journal (05) 23-27.

--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Batik, Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛202070080579 MTI英语笔译==
===Batik(Lanran)===

Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

===History===

According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.(Liu Haili, 1986,1)

Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. (Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik, Cao Saina, 2020,5）

Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.

===Types===

Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region. （Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

===Technical Process===

Preparation

Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate. （Liao Li, 2012）

Applying wax

Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife.
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dip-dyeing

Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dewaxing

After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（Liao Li, 2012）

===Materials ===

The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.(Liao Li, 2012)

In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.(Liao Li, 2012)

In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （Liao Li, 2012）

===Patterns===

From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns.
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.（Li Xing, 2020,3)

Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value.

Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(Liao Li, 2012）

===Terms and Expressions===

batik 蜡染

laxie 蜡缬

huixie 灰缬

jiaoxie 绞缬

jiaxie 夹缬

Eryi Records 《二仪实录》

The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》

The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》

single-color dyeing 单色染

multi-color dyeing 复色染

Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院

Polygonum 蓼蓝

Polygonaceae蓼科植物

Isatis tinctoria 松蓝

Cruciferae 十字花科

anil 木蓝属植物

leguminous豆科

safflower红花

madder茜草

yellow gardenia黄色栀子

turmeric姜黄

Rhamnus utility冻绿

===Questions and Answers===

1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?

Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.

2. When did batik appear and become popular?

Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.

3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?

Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.

4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.

5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?

Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.

6. How does “ice patterns” appear?

When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".

7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?

Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.

===References===

Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik 百度百科—蜡染. (2020). https://baike.baidu.com/item/蜡染/306637?fr=aladdin

Liao Li. 廖利.(2012). 蜡染艺术 [Batik Art] 世界大学城 http://www.worlduc.com/blog2012.aspx?bid=13678859

Cao Saina曹赛娜. (2010). 中国蜡染演化趋势与本土活化方式浅探 [The Evolution Trend of Chinese Batik and Its Local Activation Method]. “ 中国美术学院” China Art College 5.

Li Xing, 李欣. (2020). 贵州蜡染发展源流及文化内涵 [Development and Cultural Connotations of Batik in Guizhou]. “ 广东教育学会教育现代化专业委员会2020年第一次学术研讨会论文集” Memoir of the first academic seminar of the Education Modernization Professional Committee of the Guangdong Education Society in 2020 3.

Liu Haili刘海粟. (1986). 贵州蜡染的历史、现状及其发展 [The History, Current Situation and Development of Batik in Guizhou]. “贵州师范大学学报(社会科学版)” Guizhou Normal University Journal(Social and Scientific Edition) (01):1-6.

==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).

Short weapons

The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords.

Long Weapons

The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.(沈志刚，2010).

Historical Origins

Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.Quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.

During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.

The meteor hammer

The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.

Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.(China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009).

Rope Dart

The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.

The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).

Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.

Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.

A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.

These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.(Jwing-Ming Yang ,1999).

It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!

===B.Terms and Expressions===
greataxe 钺

trident 叉

dagger halberd 戟

spiked mace 殳

soft whip 软鞭

bar mace 锏

dagger axe 戈

rope dart 绳镖
===C.Questions===
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?

Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.

2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?

Answer: The Stone Age weapons.

3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?

Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.

4. How to use a meteor hammer?

Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

[1] 百度百科.

[2] 沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.

[3] "''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.

[4] Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 08:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲英语笔译 202070080623==

===Terracotta Army===

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑

chariot n. 战车

mausoleum n. 陵墓

Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇

Pit 1 一号坑

Pit 2 二号坑

Pit 3 三号坑

kiln n. 窑

Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹

World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》

===Questions===

1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?

2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?

3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?

4. How the terracotta warriors were made?

5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?

6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?

===Answers===

1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.

2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.

3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future.

4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.

5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

===References===

1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors.

2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.

3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.

4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
'''Penjing'''

Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''A.Categories'''

Penjing generally fall into one of three categories:

Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）

Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''B.History'''

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''C.Techniques and Care'''

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''D. In Other Culture'''

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
*miniature小型的，缩小的
*trimming 修剪
*pruning 剪枝
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代
*pomegranate 石榴
*literali 文人
*clamping 折枝成型

===Question===
*Have you ever raise any plants?
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?

===Answers===
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.
*The Han Dynasty
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.

===References===
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类

[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管

[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋

[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==

===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===

====A. Overview of Douyin and Tik Tok ====
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)

In September 2017, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was launched. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and the content is not shared between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.

What’s more, the mode of both Douyin and Tik Tok is similar. According to Liang’s description of Douyin,“The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second stories.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. (Tian Fengchang, 2020: 15-17) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.

Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spending most of their spare time on the For You Page. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

====B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram ====
As what was mentioned before, Tik Tok or Douyin is somehow similar to Instagram. Despite their alike fundamentals, they have their own distinctive features. Differences between them are as follows:

1. Time limit: Tik Tok currently does not support a long-form video. While IGTV, Instagram’s long-form video feature, allows a video length of up to one hour. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

2. Users: Most Tik Tok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most Tik Tok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)

3. Community: Compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. It allows users to easily connect, build friendships, and collab with each other. Besides, something new and trendy is pushed to the users every week, so as to further increase its attention. Therefore, some creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

====C. Popularity and Effects ====
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Several reasons why Tik Tok is so popular include:

1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy from China, Jimmy Fallon from American, have helped drive Tik Tok's popularity. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

There is no doubt that Tik Tok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a Tik Tok or doing one of the Tik Tok dances. (Wang Ning, 2019: 15-16) Here are some benefits of Tik Tok:

1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of Tik Tok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, Tik Tok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

2. Publicity: With Tik Tok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.

3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on Tik Tok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from Tik Tok. As an engaging platform, Tik Tok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Chinese Red Cross Foundation or intern for companies. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. there are as follows:

1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making users hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later only to find have lost an entire day. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people criticize other people’s videos, while others create videos for deriding someone. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved, thus resulting in life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues. (Tian Xiaofang, 2019)

[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]

===Terms and Expressions===
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音

ByteDance 字节跳动

Short video platforms 短视频平台

Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法

Celebrity endorsements 名人代言

Chinese Red Cross Foundation 中国红十字基金会

Mental health 心理健康

===Questions and Answers===
Q1. What is Tik Tok？

Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?

Q3. Why Tik Tok is so popular around the world?

Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?

Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok?

A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic.

A2: They are two different versions that can be downloaded in different regions -- Douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.

A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing.

A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. Additionally, People can learn new things.

A5: Many worried that Tik Tok is addictive, bad for mental health, and unsafe.

===References===
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019

* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018

* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.

* Tian Fengchang, Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based on Tik Tok][J].''中国商论''[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.

* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].''现代营销(信息版)'',[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.

* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020

* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.

* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.

* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].

* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 202070080649 英语口译==

===Four Buddhist Shrines===

Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity,which ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated and achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)

===Mount Wutai===

Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. It is the ashram of Manjusri Bodhisattva who is the god of wisdom in China. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）

===Mount Putuo===

Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）

===Mount Emei===

Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva who is the god of practice in China. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Just the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(Gan Shude,1998）

===Mount Jiuhua===

Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha who is the god of willingness and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. It was initially named Mount Jiuzi and was latter renamed to Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Li Bai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）

===Terms and Expressions===

Buddhist adj.佛教的

Buddhism n.佛教

shrine n.圣地

pullulate v.大量产生

Gold Wutai 金五台

Silver Putuo 银普陀

Copper Emei 铜峨眉

Iron Jiuhua 铁九华

Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨

Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨

Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨

Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨

reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身

ashram n. 修行的住所

Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼

Sarnath n. 鹿野苑

Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶

Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗

Wanghai Peak 望海峰

Yedou Peak 叶斗峰

Guayue Peak 挂月峰

Splendid Peak 锦绣峰

Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰

Xiantong Temple 显通寺

Nanchan Temple 南禅寺

Foguang Temple 佛光寺

The Great White Tower 大白塔

Puji Temple 普济寺

Fayu Temple 法雨寺

Huiji Temple 惠济寺

The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林

Wannian Temple 万年寺

Baoguo Temple 报国寺

Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺

Golden Summit 金顶

Huacheng Temple 化城寺

Tiantai Temple 天台寺

Longevity Palace 百岁宫

Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺

nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Li Bai

妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白

===Questions===

1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?

2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?

3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectively?

4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?

5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet [[Li Bai]]?--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.

2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.

3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.

4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.

5. Mount Putuo.

6. Mount Jiuhua.

===References===

1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.

2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.

3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.

4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html

5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.

--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:05, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==
===Compass===
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as one of the advanced scientific technologies in ancient China, has made great contributions to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity, use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94).

The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)

In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decrease in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)

In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)

Compass, as a tool for guiding the direction, has played an important role in people's daily life and in the navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It is recorded that Qin emperor used a diving board and compass in his royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass led people to believe that the square plate symbolized the earth and the round disc symbolized the heaven. And around the round disc, there engraved the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 constellations (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a superstition, the compass was endowed with the wishful thinking of the people. Nowadays many people still use the concept of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremonies. (China Week 2003,35)

Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass has played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)

The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until the 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)

[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]

===References===
*"FOUR Great Inventions" [四大发明]. ''China's Foreign Trade'' [《中国外贸》].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012).
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China" [指南针——中国四大发明之一]. ''China Week'' [《中华周刊》]. China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003).
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》 [''Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine'']. 武汉：武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan University Press].1995.

===Terms and Expressions===
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子
*lodestone 天然磁石
*south-governor 司南
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮
*Ding Du 丁度
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘
*dry compass 旱罗盘
*Eight Trigrams 八卦
*gimbal 常平架

===Questions===
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature?
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear?
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass?
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass?
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?

===Answers===
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.
*In the Warring States Period.
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==

''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.

===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his house. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he put many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.

===2. Contents and Themes===
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types:

One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.

Pu Songling himeself suffered from his repeated failure in the imperial examination. In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.

===3. A Typical Story===
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.

===4. Features of the Book===
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning.

4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

===Terms and Expressions===

teahouse 茶馆

scholarly family书香世家

imperial examination 科举制度

underworld 阴曹地府

fox spirit 狐妖

salt merchant 盐商

forgetting to be alien 忘为异类

===Questions===

1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?

2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?

3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?

4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.

5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?

6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?

===Answers===
1. Nearly 500.

2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.

3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.

4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.

5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.

6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.

Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

===References===

==Four Main Philosophic Schools-张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 MTI 英语口译==

===Confucianism===

In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and tried to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.

Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatening the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”).

However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaws in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.

In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation could survive whatever disaster it encountered as well. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.

===Taoism or Daoism===

Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on the development of Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively.

First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts (百家争鸣)”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55).

However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor selected Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.

===Legalism===

Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law at its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.

Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishments according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.

===Mohism===

Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the latter contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.

During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.

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13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.

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--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==

====A. Writing Brush====

Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)

In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)

Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

====B. Terms and Expressions====

笔锋 the tip of a wring brush

笔杆 pen-holder

宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush

羊毫笔 goat-hair brush

鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush

====C. Questions====

1. What are the four treasures of the study?

2. How long is the history of writing brush?

3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?

4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?

===Answers===

1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.

2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.

3. In the Warring States periods.

4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.

===References===

*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.

*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.

*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.

*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.

==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==

===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===

===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.

The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)

The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.

The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.

===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.

Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]

In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.

===The Legendary of Nian===

According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)).

Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)).

Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.

===Terms and Expressions===

Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海

Yandi 炎帝

Shanhaijing 山海经

Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山

Nüwa 女娃

Eastern Sea 东海

the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟

Zhang River 漳水

The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水

Emperor Yao 尧帝

Nian 年

new year 新年

===Questions===
1.Who is Nüwa?

She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.

2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?

The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.

3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?

Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.
===References===

[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.

[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.

[3]百度百科

[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian.

[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review.

[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168.

--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

==Face Changing in Sichuan Opera - Zhou Yiwen 周艺文 202070080629 英语笔译==

===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===

1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics

Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)

2.The origin and development of face changing

Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)

Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)

It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)

3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu

The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people's perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

4.Crafting materials for facial makeup

As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)

5.Three main types of Lianpu

There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)

===Terms and Expressions===

Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧

Face changing n.变脸

Lian pu 脸谱

Guan Yu 关羽

Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》

Liu Bei 刘备

Cao Cao 曹操

Qin Hui 秦桧

Yan Song 严嵩

Sima Yi 司马懿

Bao Zhenhg 包拯

Li Kui 李逵

Zhang Fei 张飞

Dian Wei 典韦

Pang Juan 庞涓

Xu Shiying 徐世英

Dou Erdun 窦尔敦

Cheng Yaojin 程咬金

Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜

Sun Wukong, 孙悟空

Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王

Peng Denghuai 彭登怀

Andy Lau 刘德华

Wiping Mask 抹脸

Blowing Mask 吹脸

Pulling Mask 扯脸

===Questions===
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?

2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?

3.How long is the history of face changing?

4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?

5.What are the three types of face changes?

===Answers===

1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).

2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.

3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).

4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.

5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.

===References===

Luo Yue. 罗玥. (2019). 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术 [On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''戏剧之家'' Home Drama13:29-30.

Wang Huaqing. 王华清. (2017). 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征 [Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''设计'' Design

Xiao Yuanjin. 萧源锦. (2013). 神奇莫测的川剧变脸 [Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera]. ''文史杂志'' Journal of Literature and History 2: 54-55.

百度百科Baidu Baike

https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml

https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==

===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System.

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:

1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers.

2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates' talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn't have the power of appointment.

3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Nine-Grade Official Selection System, image from Baike. Click [https://baike.baidu.com/pic/%E4%B9%9D%E5%93%81%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%B6/1711003/1/77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f?fr=lemma&ct=single#aid=1&pic=77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f.jpg] for original source.]]

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Terms and Expressions===

Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制

Recommendatory System 察举制

Rectifier 中正官

Senior Rectifier 大中正官

Junior Rectifier 小中正官

Region 州

Commandery 郡

superior-superior 上上

superior-intermediary 上中

superior-inferior 上下

intermediary-superior 中上

intermediary-intermediary 中中

intermediary-inferior 中下

inferior-superior 下上

inferior-intermediary 下中

and inferior-inferior 下下

Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书

Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》

===Questions===

1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

2. What does a Rectifier do?

3. What are the nine ranks?

4. What's the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

===Answers===

1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.

2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.

3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.

4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

===References===

1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.

2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.

3. Deng Zhongping 邓中平. (2010). 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示 [Analysis of ancient Chinese system for selecting officers and enlightenment].西南政法大学 Southwest University of Political Science and Law.

==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译 ==

===Introduction===

From then till now, windows at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural component-window, affects not only the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, but also the enchantment of a building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable constituent part in their lives. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)

Ancient Chinese windows developed a unique style of its own, and was fundamentally different from any other school of architecture in the world. Windows has always been the object of humanity's pursuit of beauty. More than two thousands years ago, Laozi made a brilliant exposition on this: "In order to build a house, although we must establish solid walls, we must also provide doors and windows; so both the impenetrable and penetrable are essential to useful building." What tis meant was that what was visible was merely the physical setting, but what really made a structure useful was its invisible space. (Classic of Way and Its Powers, 1996, 56)

This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in windows in detail. Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in different dynasties in China. Lattice is also called geyan to folklore(格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2006, 47)

===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]

The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)

===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]

In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. This kind of lattice is the most luxuriant and delicate both in its structure and color scheme. Therefore, it is obviously costly and time-consuming in production and ordinary people are unable to afford it. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)

===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===

[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]

This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）

===Swastika lattice===

[[File: Windows 5-1.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]

Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.（Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 300)

===Fret lattice===

[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]

Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)

===The cracked ice lattice===

[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]

The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, with all things are reviving and full of vitality. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and merry wishes will be realized immediately. This kind of lattice is often applied in private gardens, because it blends well with the peaceful sceneries and always renders silent hope and comforting to whoever have a walk there. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)

===The H-shaped Lattice===

[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]

The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. Therefore, this formal lattice is often seen in houses of scholars or officials, a reminder that their manner and speech should be well-disciplined no matter in the public or in private. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)

===The well-shaped lattice===

[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]

The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

===Conclusion===

"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)

Nowadays, people living in cramped quarters have become almost oblivious to the aesthetics of their dwellings. The windows serve no other function than that of ventilation and lighting. In contrast, scholars or even ordinary peoples in ancient China living in dilapidated houses were obviously superior to us in terms of their taste and the efforts they made in improving the residential environment. I consider this is one of the greatest regrets in our modern life and by writing this paper, I aim to arouse people's appreciation and enhance understanding of the splendid architectural culture created by our ancestors and let them be our silent companies to enrich our lives. (Ma Weidu, 2006, 9-10)

===Vocabulary List===

lattice 格心

diamond lattice 菱花

the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花

the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花

a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花

swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花

fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花

the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花

the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花

===Questions===

1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows?

2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples?

3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice?

===Answers===

1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight.

2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples.

3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.

===Reference===

*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.

*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.

*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.

*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.

*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press

*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts

* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review.

* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 04:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 202070080631 MTI==

===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===

As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)

The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system. Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription.(Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020, 18)

Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011, 179)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]

Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012, 409)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]

There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays. Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020, 62)

Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.(Wang Yi, 2019, 106)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.

Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.

Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.

Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).

Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.

Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.

Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411.

Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).

Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy

===Terms and Expressions===
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间

Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗

xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗

Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派

Donglin School 东林党

Zhu Xi 朱熹

Zhou Shi 周式

Zhang Shi 张栻

Qiandao Reign 乾道年间

Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛

Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁

Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭

Yushu Library 御书楼

Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁

Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂

Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂

the Banxue Building 半学斋

the Hexi Platform 赫曦台

===Questions===
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?

2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?

3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?

4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?

5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?

6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?

===Answers===
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).

2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.

3.The Lecture Hall.

4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony.

5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning.

6.It held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.

--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633 MTI英语笔译==

===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===

[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55).

The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussions in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view is that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in ''The History of Song Dynasty'' (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believe that jiaozi developes from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” is regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialize in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there is another opinion that it's the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promotes the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin is that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.

The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835).

Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22).

Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).

The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).

Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.

===References===

*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.

*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.

*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.

*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.

*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.

*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.

*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.

*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.

*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.

===Terms and Expressions===
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"

|-

|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱

|-

|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期

|-

|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺

|-

|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树

|-

|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田

|-

|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年

|-

|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子

|}

===Questions===

1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?

2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?

3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?

4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?

5.What achievements did jiaozi make?

6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?

===Answers===
1.Jiaozi.

2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.

3.Merchants.

4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).

5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.

6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.

==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003 - Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===

Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]

[[File: makeup.jpg]]

Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.

It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.

In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.

From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]

Pale skin was and still is a sign of aristocracy in the East. Women literally put white on their face, their skin had to be snow-white, so they often went under umbrellas so as not to tan.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====I.Base make up====

1.Lead powder

In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

2.Rice powder

In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.

“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

====II.Color make up====

If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

1.Blush

Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).Blush in ancient China was bright and rich (this contrasted with white skin), which showed the Almighty that they were healthy and happy.

Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.

[[File: blush.jpg]]

2.Lipsctick

Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.

[[File: lipstick.jpg]]

3.Eyebrows

It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.Eyebrows are a separate and one of the favorite parts of makeup. They had to be clear and black. The women shaved off their eyebrows and then dyed the eyebrows in a thin arc or made them straight. It was customary for warriors to dye their eyebrows in such a way as to give the image a more severe look.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.

In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.

[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]

====III.Tang dynasty make up====

[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]

1.Early Tang Dynasty

The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.

In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.

*White make up

Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

*Red make up

In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.

As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty

After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.

For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.

3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty

After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.

In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.

However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.

The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.

4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times

Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.

Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.

====References====

*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

====Terms and Expressions====

*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.

*胭脂 - rouge

*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick

*黛 - black eyebrow dye

====Questions====

1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?

2.Why is lead powder dangerous?

3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?

4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?

5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?

6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?

====Answers====

1.Rice powder.

2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.

3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.

5.White make up and Red make up.

6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.

History of Translation Studies 10

2020-12-21T08:01:07Z

Zhang Hui: /* The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].
='''Functional Equivalence'''=

== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing 英语笔译 202070080581==

===Abstract===
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.

===key words===

functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation

===摘要===
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。

===关键字===
功能对等，形式对等，翻译

===Introduction===

As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, have not been covered by linguistic theory.

Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence.

During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.

===Functional Equivalence===
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)

Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”.

The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence.

To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures.Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language.

In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation.

Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.

===Formal equivalence===

Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167）

Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.

From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis.That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged.

Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.

===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.

For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which is direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.

Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.

Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word, which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.

Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.

===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===

Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.

====Lexical equivalence====

Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example,“Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is polite and emotional way to express our feelin .

Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women.

It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translator's mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”.
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have to consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.

====Syntax equivalence====

Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore,proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows:
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。

It is obvious that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese people often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”.
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:
“You’re not a student,are you?”
“Yes, I am.”
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.

====Texual equivalence====

Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but trasnslators have to choose one based on the context.

“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”
“What trouble?” He was startled.
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.

In addition, translators need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears.
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe.
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.

The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.

====Stylistic equivalence====

Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.

Example: 清明
杜牧
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。
Translation by Wu Juntao:
The Pure Brightness Day
By Du Mu
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”
He points at Apricot Village faraway.

In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.

Translation by Xu Yuanchong:
The Mourning Day
By Du Mu
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers.

In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.

===Conclusion===

Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation.

Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation.

According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张军,2018:114)

===References===

Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.

Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．

Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.

Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.

Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.

Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.

Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.

Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.

Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.

尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．

Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).

UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==

== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center>
===Abstract===

The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.

===Key words===
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture

===题目===
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例
===摘要===
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。

===关键词===
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化

===Introduction===

In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the first, second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.

This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.

Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）

===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===

Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,''Toward a Science of Translating''. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）

In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.（Nida,2004:24）

Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)

In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and(3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s reaction to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）

===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===

====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====

Nida and Taber point out that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of ''Folding Beijing'' from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)

=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====

In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of ''Folding Beijing'', there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original text at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)

Example 1:
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）

"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)

Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.

Example 2:
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）

"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)

The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper.

Example 3:
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）

"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)

The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.

=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====

Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）

Syntax, as a rule, refers to the study of how to construct sentences correctly with the words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the readers. Translators should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）

The differences between English and Chinese grammar are mainly reflected in three aspects. First, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress (Ding Juan, 2011: 24).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）

In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original, we must not only translate the meaning of the words, but also translate the syntactic structure into the appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）

"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)

We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.

We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator clearly adjusted the word order, pushing what the same person said before the pause to the next sentence to fit the logic of the English reader." Selection should also be liberalized" ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the reader, so the reader adds to this sentence and translates it as "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", the translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）

“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".

In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using subordinate clause like"... childhood that...".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3:
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）

"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.

In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, such as "as if", "from where", "that", etc. This is because the syntax of the two languages is different.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====

Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）

Nida argues that readers may have difficulty accepting an approximate formal translation due to the intricacies of the discourse structure and the preconceived knowledge of the original content. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a "rewriting" approach to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be comparable to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from Folding Beijing and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Ding Juan,2011:27)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”

老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。

“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”

依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)

"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself."

Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.

"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.

Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)

The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.

Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translation. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but the understanding of the text is the same for the readers. For example, "夹了新上来的热菜" is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====

Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）

Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====

First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）

Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.

In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.

It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3:
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)

"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)

It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.

This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 4:
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)

"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)

In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.

In this sentence, "怪胎" is translated as "monster" and "born" conveys the same meaning, so the translator did not have any trouble.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.2 Dialects=====

Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）

The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem. (Dingjuan, 2011:33)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.

In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.

In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====

In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）

Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====

The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）

The city described in Folding Beijing is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 1:
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)

"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.

"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. Translators translate it as "chow mein" instead of "Chinese chow mein". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means Chinese-style fried noodles with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 2:
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)

"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)

The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.

Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 3:

"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)

The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）

The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator has captured this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====

Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）

Chinese people also have their own unique lifestyles, customs, behavior patterns, etc. in terms of vocabulary. The following will analyze the functional equivalence of translation in folk culture. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:52).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1:
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)

"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior.

"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the boy's poverty. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, where Westerners behave differently, so he uses the word "sharing" and adds the word "family style" to make it easier for the reader to understand this behavior.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
Example 2:
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)

"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)

The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.

The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. People from the same hometown share similar living habits, upbringing and cultural background, so even strangers can get acquainted quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao are from the third dimension, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective." 管事儿" means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2:
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)

"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is an euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In translation, the translator also considered an euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".

In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====

Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）

Idioms are an important part of the vast and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people use these idioms in their daily life and writing, but some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and it is important to pay attention to the differences between the two cultures when translating them.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.

The author uses many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "to eat in a heartbeat". Although the translation is easy to understand, without the image of a person eating very hungry, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.

And "(盘子)一片狼藉" is translated as "the plate is a mess", which is a description of a messy situation on the plate. And "the beauty of adulthood" is translated as "in that case, I am doing a good deed by keeping quiet", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe how Lao Dao felt that he kept the secret that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator translated the phrase abstractly into the English translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）

The English translation of Folding Beijing is analyzed from three aspects of meaning, style, and culture using this paper's functional equivalence theory, and it is concluded that the English translation meets the English readers' understanding of the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and reciprocal Chinese translation of Folding Beijing for English readers. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:56)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyze from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Folding Beijing" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western cultures, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.

Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）

In some specific contents, the translators do not translate into exactly the same form, which is also in line with Nida's theory of functional equivalence, because Nida also suggests that translation should not be limited to form, and the translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's functional equivalence theory does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy

Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40

Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118

Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press

Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24

Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]

Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]

Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]

Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]

Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]

==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center>
===Abtract===
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation.

===Key Words===
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong
===题目 ===
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析
===摘要===
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。
===关键词===
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中
===Introduction===
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version.

Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.

The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.

American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.

The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.

===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.

The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).

====Three Steps of Translation====
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.

Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?

In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)

Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.

===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).

The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.

Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)

Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)

====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).

Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).

Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).

From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).

=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).

He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.

Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).

===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version====
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).

“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.

Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).

=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.

Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.

It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)

In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.

Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.

In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same.

Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.

In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.

=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.

======Alliteration======
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.

(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.

In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.

(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)
蔡牧师只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.

Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.

An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).

======Paradox======
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).

After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.

(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for
publication. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?
西西丽哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons.

Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)

======Antithesis======

(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)
亚吉能阁下似乎不明白，婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.

As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).

(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)
劳你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.

====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.

The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).

The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).

For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).

===Conclusion===
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).

One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.

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=Applicaton of Translation Theories=
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603==

===Abstract===
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.

===Key words===
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies

===题目===
释意理论指导下的口译

===摘要===
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。

===关键词===
释意理论；口译；翻译策略

===1.Introduction===
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.

===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence.

The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)

The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicit, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)

Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself.

Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.

The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can
understanding:the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.

The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.

The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.

In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)

===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.

There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)

Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)

===2. Literary Review===
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.

===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.

The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized.

At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry.

Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.

It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.

===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===

Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work.

With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.

First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.

On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.

===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.

Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)

===3.1 Free Translation===

The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.

===3.2 Addition of Message===

Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.

===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===

As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.

===Conclusion===

In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.

The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics.

Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)

The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)

The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)

In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1.

*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.

*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.

*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.

*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.

*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.

*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.

* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.

* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]

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*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.

='''Theory and Practise'''=

==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures ==
陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593 英语语言文学
===Abstract===
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.

===Keywords ===
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation

===摘要===
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段；第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。

===关键词===
佛经，翻译，直译，意译

===Introduction===
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time, until they entered China along trade routes from Central Asia in the first century AD.

Buddhism is widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.

During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the similarity in form and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation(Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).

In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three periods. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposes that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposes to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang holds that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.

=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.

==== An Shigao ====
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures in total, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).

==== Zhi Chen ====
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “Transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear.

==== Zhi Qian ====
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, was a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He was the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignoring the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.

==== The Characteristics of This Period ====
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days.

(2)The dominant translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures.

On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore they can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.

(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.

=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.

====Shi Daoan ====
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he was also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”.

“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.

The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.

==== Kumarajiva ====
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He was one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translated 39 volumes. He was proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocated that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form.

“Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of Indian Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).

Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness.

Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived at Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops.With his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.

==== The Characteristics of This Period ====
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).

(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads) were usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China, translators could take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there were more Sanskrit texts, they had more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.

(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.

(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, and metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).

=== Tang Dynasty ===
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age was Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.

==== Xuang Zang ====
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses. The number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).

In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).

==== The Characteristics of This Period ====
(1) The translators were mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also had a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who were proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work did not need to turn to foreign monks.

(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation.

(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty was more all-sided in organization. “According to records, the translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty had as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them were rabbis appointed by the court.

(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.

(5) The translation scripts were more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believed that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.

=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.

The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese was mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.

“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).

The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.

In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.

=== Conclusion ===
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.

The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.

By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.

The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation

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==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi ==
<center>成于思 Cheng Yusi No.202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究</center>

==='''Abstract'''===
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.

===Key words===

André Lefevere; ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook''; Liu Miqing; ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''; “cultural turn”; John Dryden; translation principles

===题目===
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析

===摘要===
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。

===关键词===

安德烈·勒菲弗尔;《翻译，历史和文化论集》; 刘宓庆;《中西翻译思想对比研究》;文化转向;约翰·德莱登;翻译原则

===1.Introduction===
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.

In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. Dryden's comparison of a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.

In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.

In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.

All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.

===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===

''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies.

In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force.

In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii)

Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)

If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.

The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements, which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)

I enjoy reading this book because it brings those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.

I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47)

In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "an author and a translator" to "a master and a slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)

Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.

Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracts an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)

In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102)

Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)

Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103)

As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)

Dryden proposes a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)

It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation.

Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)

However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compares a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)

Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars, like Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014)

A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works were with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)

Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73)

About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)

===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===

In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2)

In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture.

Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)

The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33)

He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)

The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)

Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)

Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179)

The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)

However, he also recognizes that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School and New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)

Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented", and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories which can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current superficial, assertive and rational views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)

The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)

Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)

Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulated that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)

Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987)

In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation principles that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the feature of the tradition of Chinese translation changes from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)

As such, the flourishing of translation is bound to be our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101)

The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51)

The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)

The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)

Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)

Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)

Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argues that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provides a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)

===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===

===4.1 From the aspect of the content===
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles.

Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)

===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===

Both of these two books are arranged in theme rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters, which are concerned with the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. As to the longer essays, they are collected in the last chapter.

Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includs the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps readers understanding translation principles.

===Conclusion===

In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have better understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of a translator to a slave. Then, it figures out the reasons of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.

André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.

Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.

Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.

Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.

Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.

Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.

Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.

Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.

==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==

===Abstract===
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.
===Key Words===
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend
===摘要===
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。
===关键词===
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势
===Introuction===
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.

Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===

Ancient Translation Period

The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China

A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.

Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects:

(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.

Translation Theory in the Republic of China

Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China

The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===

Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory

Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018).

In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018).

Innovation of ontology

Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===

Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation.

The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)

The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory

Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.

Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories.

The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present.

These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation.

Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism.

Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough.

The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)

The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry

As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application.

Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)

===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===

Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research

First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)

Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.
Third, researchers and institutions.

The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research

First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.

Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.

Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.

Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.

Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes.

This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.

Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).

The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen.

The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.

===Trends in Translation Theory Research===

Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration

Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”.

In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）

Return to culture development

The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.

Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation

Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）

===Conclusion===

From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.

===References===

[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.

[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.

[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.

[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.

[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.

[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.

[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.

[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.

[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.

[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.

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==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==

==='''Abstract'''===
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.

==='''Key words'''===

Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.

==='''摘要'''===

归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。

==='''关键词'''===

归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流

===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===

Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）

On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.（Venuti，1995）

Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）

For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）[you can put the examples in the later paragraph--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 07:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi]

==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===

Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words.（Zhang le 2017，37）

Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）

[Take Chinese and English for example ,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal, as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain, but in England ,a country with developed industry, people are no longer farming ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before, instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse ,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily, after the rain ,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 07:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi]

So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）

On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）

Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）

===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===

1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture

The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)

Example 1

路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字

To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)

Example 2

云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。

Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)

Example 3

花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill)
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。
Hunan Province lies just in the south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)

Example 4

Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)[please highlight the example--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 07:22, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kaungxi]

Example 5

她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)

The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)

Example 6

四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls.
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)

2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture

With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）

For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）

Example 7

番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.
砂锅面(casserole noodles)
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）

Example 8

蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)
This translation is named after historical allusions.
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor.
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）

Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.

Example 9

“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)

If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)

Example 10

Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）

For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）

3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy

Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 11

我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 12

“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 13

耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 14

“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。（Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）

"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 15

我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）

If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）

===''' Conclusion '''===

Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.
===''' References '''===

* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=

==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center>
==='''Abstract'''===
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .

==='''Key words'''===
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction

===摘要===
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。

===关键词===
翻译学；语言学；学科构建

==='''1.Introduction'''===
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）

For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）

This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.

==='''2.Literature review '''===
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology.

'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''

In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recording two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)

Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)

J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)

Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)

In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)

Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )

Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006)

'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''

In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）

In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)

In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)

In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)

In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)

In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)

In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)

At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)

Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）

Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)

Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)

Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)

Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012)

Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)

Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)

In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)

Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)

Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)

Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)

From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.

==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===

In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.

'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''

"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)

In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）

Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)

'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''

Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)

'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''

Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei etc. (Yi Jing,2009)

The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)

'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent discipline'''

Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )

Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）

'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''

Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)

Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）

==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===

For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )

4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation

As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )

Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 )

Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）

These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )

4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory

In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )

4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics

Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)

Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)

Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)

Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)

4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics

For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009

The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）

4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics

As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）

Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)

4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics

In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )

4.4.1 Discipline development

Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)

The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )

4.4.2 Discipline structure

Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)

From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）

4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline

Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）

==='''5.Conclusion'''===

Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)

Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))

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==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658,外国语言学及应用语言学==

许晶 Xu Jing 202020080658 外国语言学及应用语言学

==='''Abstract'''===

With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.

==='''Key words'''===

Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents

==='''题目'''===

对中国翻译学学习的反思

==='''摘要'''===

随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。

==='''关键词'''===

翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才

==='''1. Introduction'''===

1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies

Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972)

Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)

Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior.

Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.

1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies

With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable.

As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system.

Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)

==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===

Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.

2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies

In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention.

The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.

However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, as well as translation criticism, translation publishing, and translation management, etc.

At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)

2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies

At the beginning of this period, translation studies explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences.

At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)

Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge. Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)

2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies

In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)

In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.

There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers should help students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments that required by the language service market. Teachers can invite industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.

==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===

The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.

3.1. Translation Education

With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018）

However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.

3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents

At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)

In addition, due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)

3.1.2. Faculty Resources

The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability.

The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)

In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)

3.1.3. Teaching method

Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018)

This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.

3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research

The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019）

Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)

3.2. Students

The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.

3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning

Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough.

Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)

As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.

3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge

Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information.

With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015)

3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge

At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）

==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===

In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.

4.1. Translation Education

Translation education plays an important role in cultivating translation talents, and a good translation education system will provide a good environment for students to learn Translation Studies, so it is necessary to improve translation education system.

4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode

The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)

Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)

The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019)

4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force

Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents.

Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019）

Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)

4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation

Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)

The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)

4.2. Students

Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.

4.2.1. Expanding knowledge

Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)

A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)

4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more

Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times.

Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can take part in many social activities to experience different aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)

==='''5.Conclusion'''===

This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research.

From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.

President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)

Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 15:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

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==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center>

<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center>

===Abstract===
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.

===Keywords===
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays

===题目===
译者文化身份对翻译的影响

===摘要===
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。

===关键词===
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧

===Introduction===

Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.

Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)

There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.

=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.

Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.

"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)

====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.

In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.

Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on domestication strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.

====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.

However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades."

However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "The highest art can only be understood by a few", "Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades. ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23)

As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12)

We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.

====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====

According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)

Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.

The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.

===The cultural identity of translators in translation===
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.

Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.

====In terms of the original intention of translation====
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously

In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.

Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".

When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Irving Babbitt, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)

====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.

For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)

EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，

伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，

This man hath my consent to marry her．

是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的

Stand forth，Lysander．

走上前来，拉山德。

And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）

殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子（朱生豪. 2013：9）

In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work.
For example, his translation.
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)

拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!

否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。

Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.

First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:

LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)

Translation of Liang Shiqiu:

赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，

否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。

HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool:

And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)

海上学时她就是个狐狸精。

她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。

Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966)

Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature.

For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.

Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;
There with fantastic garlands did she come,
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,
When down her weedy trophies and herself
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one
incapable of her own distress,
Or like a creature native and indu’d
Unto that element: but long it could not be
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay
To muddy death.
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）

Liang’s version :

河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。

===Conclusion===
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works.

For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion.

By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.

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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==

===Abstract===
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Toury's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.

===Key words===
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies

===摘要===
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍

===关键字===
描述翻译学；翻译研究

===Introduction===
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.

Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.

Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.

In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Toury and ''Descriptive translation''===
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Toury also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.

The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Toury proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.

Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Toury describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]

In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Toury, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.

According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]

He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Toury, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Toury's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.

According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.

Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112

Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

According to Toury, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Toury concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Toury believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Toury is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Toury has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.

According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.

Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In his study of descriptive translation, Toury emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Toury's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Toury's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.

In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.

The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.

Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.

The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.

Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.

Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations].

Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].

Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].

Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.

Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.

Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.

Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.

Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].

Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].

==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==

<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center>

===Abstract:===
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.

===摘要：===
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，使读者深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。

===Key words:===
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.

===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.

===Chapter 1 Introduction===

Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）

Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）

In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20)

However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===

In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.

====2.1 John MacFarlane====

In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

====2.2 Firth====

Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240)

====2.3 James Holmes====

With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）

"He divides translation studies into three categories:
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）

He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive.

For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）

Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）

Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).

However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.

====2.4 Polysystem Theory====

In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem(多元体系派) is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies(翻译研究派). It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）

According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）

Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）

====2.5 Gideon Toury

Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）

This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）

Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）

In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally.

Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)

He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.

====2.6 Snell-Hornby

In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation.

Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)

===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===

====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====

In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.

Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)

Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.

Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)

Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：

(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts.

However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)

(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22)

The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)

====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====

First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory is undoubtedly meaningful and instructive, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201)

Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)

This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)

On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice.

Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)

====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====

In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )

The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.

===Chapter 4 Conclusion===

Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.

Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.

Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.

===Chapter 5 Reference===

Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.

J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.

Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.

Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.

Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.

Snell-Hornby. (1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Han Ziman 韩子满, Liu Fang 刘芳. (2005). 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).

Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]

Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive to the Descriptive Approach]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).

Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. (2008). 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]

Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).

Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2002). 多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).

==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies==

Translation Strategies

===Abstract ===

Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.

Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.

This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;

===Introduction===

The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers deﬁne them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical signiﬁcance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)

===Content===

Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classiﬁcations from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classiﬁcation is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classiﬁcations. It seems that clear-cut deﬁnitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype deﬁnitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)

The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reﬂect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reﬂects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)

The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp ﬁction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)

Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the deﬁnitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few deﬁning characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difﬁculty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or speciﬁc) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “speciﬁc activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle speciﬁc problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by speciﬁc techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classiﬁed by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).

As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural ﬁltering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).

However, this is not consonant with the dictionary deﬁnitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is deﬁned as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) deﬁnes translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will inﬂuence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identiﬁed the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identiﬁcation, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal signiﬁcant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can ﬁnd out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==

Darwish (2008) identiﬁes four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70

However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might inﬂuence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difﬁculty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).

===Conclusion===

In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.

===References===

Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Lafﬂing(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.

== The Comparison of Machine Translation and Human Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory---A Case Study of E-C Translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example - 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan 202020080630==

<center>欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan </center>
===Abstract===
With the rapid development of globalization and the Internet, international communication is expanding, and a lot of information needs to be translated. Due to the low efficiency of human translation, machine translation is indispensable today. However, due to the limitations of machine translation, the quality of machine translation is still worrying. Therefore, from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper takes the E-C translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example to analyze the machine translation of Google translation and Baidu translation, and compare it with the translation of Song Zhaolin, so as to explore the characteristics of machine translation and human translation, try to discuss the irreplaceable nature of human translation, and discuss how to combine machine translation with human translation to improve the quality and efficiency of translation. This paper is divided into five parts: the first part introduces the background of the current translation environment; the second part introduces Skopos Theory and discusses the feasibility of Skopos Theory in analyzing machine translation and human translation; the third part introduces the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation and human translation, and discusses the relationship between them; the fourth part is a case study to see machine translation from the perspective of Skopos theory Compared with manual translation, it is concluded that machine translation and manual translation must be combined to improve the efficiency and quality of translation. The fifth part is a summary of this paper.

===Key words===
Skopos Theory, machine translation, human translation

===题目===
目的论视角下机器翻译和人工翻译的对比---以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例

===摘要===
随着全球化和互联网的迅速发展，国际的交流日益扩大，大量信息需要翻译。由于人工翻译效率低下，在越来越强调效率和质量的今天，机器翻译必不可少。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性，机器翻译的质量仍然堪忧。因此,本文以目的论视角, 以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例，分析谷歌翻译和百度翻译的机器译文, 与宋兆霖版本的中文译本对比，由此探析机器翻译与人工翻译的特点,尝试论述人工翻译的不可替代性, 并讨论如何将机器翻译与人工翻译结合提高翻译的质量和效率。本文分为五个部分，第一部分对当前翻译环境背景的介绍；第二部分对目的论进行简介，并讨论目的论用于分析机器翻译和人工翻译的可行性；第三部分介绍机器翻译和人工翻译的优缺点，并讨论他们之间的关系；第四部分进行案例分析，从目的论视角下看机器翻译与人工翻译的对比，得出提高翻译效率与质量必须将机器翻译与人工翻译相结合。第五部分对全文进行总结。

===关键词===
目的论机器翻译人工翻译

===1. Introduction ===
With the development of globalization, the growth of Internet and artificial intelligence, machine translation becomes an indispensable choice in today’s society. Compared with human translation, machine translation has the advantages of efficiency. As the traditional translation method, human translation can guarantee the accuracy of the text. In this information era, many people are thinking whether human translation will be replaced by machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

In September 2016, Google released the neural network translation system, which greatly improved the quality of machine translation. In November, Baidu CEO Robin Li stated at the Wuzhen Summit of the 3rd World Internet Conference that Baidu's artificial intelligence product "automatic translation" will enter a practical state. Therefore, this paper will put the original text of Tale of Two Cities in two representative public machine translation engines at home and abroad, "Google" and "Baidu", to obtain the machine translation. Selecting texts from the famous classical novel ''A Tale of Two Cities'', and comparing machine translations and human translations based on this novel from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper aims to investigate the relationship between human translation and machine translation and their developments in the future. (Hu Kaibao 2016, 10)

=== 2. Overview of Skopos Theory ===
In the 1970s, some eminent German translation theory scholars first proposed functional translation theory. Translation theorist Katharina Reiss divides text into three types: informative, expressive and operational. She suggested that according to different text types, different translation methods should be used for analysis, and different translation criticism standards should be adopted, that is, text types, language functions and translation strategies should be combined. In the translation process, it’s essential to focus on the functional characteristics of the target text. Her text type theory and translation criticism mode can be regarded as the beginning of functionalist Skopos theory. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)

Hans Vermeer is Reiss's student. He further developed Reiss's theory and proposed Skopos theory. He believed that Skopos theory is based on the source text, and then may produce a series of purposeful and effective behaviors. The core of this theory is that "the purpose of translation determines translation strategies and method to achieve the expected purpose of translation" (Reiss & Vermeer 1984), and German scholars Justa Holz Manttari and Christian Nord further developed this theory which based on the theory of communication and behavior, and they proposed that translation theory is not a simple translation between words and sentences, but a kind of conscious behavior for the purpose of cultural communication. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)

====2.1 Three Rules of Skopos Theory====
The word “Skopos” is originated from the Greek language and means "purpose". Skopos theory refers to the process of translation is determined by the purpose of the translation, so the purpose rule is the highest one of translation. Generally speaking, skopos theory includes three principles: Skopos rule, coherence rule (intra-textual coherence) and fidelity rule (also known as "inter-textual coherence"). (Nord 2001, 20)

Skopos theory believes that the important principle to be followed is the "purpose" rule, it is the core rule of Skopos Theory: the process of translation should be based on the realization of the communicative function in the target language culture, and the goal to be achieved determines the entire process of translation, that is, the method determines the result. Vermeer differentiated the purpose of translation. He believes that the purpose of translation should include three levels: the purpose of the translator; the purpose of communication; the purpose of specific translation strategies. In most cases, a translator has a certain purpose before translation, such as being entrusted by a translation company, market demand or the need to introduce a technology. In most cases, "purpose" refers to the communicative purpose of translation. Under the guidance of the purpose of communication, the translator can have more space to interpret and adjust the original text. (Nord 2001, 78)

To achieve the communicative and interative function between the target text and the target receptor, the target text needs to conform to the linguistic coherence, and be understood and accepted by the readers in the context of the target language and culture. The principle of coherence means that the target text must conform to the intra-textual coherence, that is, the translation must be understood by the target reader and be meaningful in the culture of the target language and the communication environment in which the translation is used. “The principle of coherence requires that the information generated by the translator (target text) must be interpreted in a manner consistent with the context of the target reader.” (Shuttleworth 2004: 75) This means the translator should maximize the translation Semantic coherence and makes the translation understandable and acceptable to the target readers. The target text can help target readers understand and successfully exchange information.

The fidelity rule refers to the inter-textual coherence between the original text and the target text, which requires "consistency between the target text and the original text" (Munday, 2010: 79). Therefore, in the translation process, the translator should not only be faithful to the original text, but also transfer the writing style and cultural factors existed in the source text. This principle requires translator to follow the purpose of translation.

In the process of translation, translators should follow three principles according to Skopos Theory: the Skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. Among these three rules in Skopos Theory, the skopos rule is the primary principle translators should adopt in the process of translation, and the coherence rule and the fidelity rule must follow the skopos rule. So in the case of translation practice, fidelity rule is subordinate to coherence rule, and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule. In a word, Skopos rule plays a decisive role in translation process, and it should be considered first in translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011, 20)

====2.3 Application of Skopos Theory====
Skopos Theory is different from traditional theories which overemphasize the features of language rules. With regard to Skopos Theory, it requires that translators should not only consider the language but also take account of factors beyond texts and language like the purpose of translation. As for ''A Tale of Two Cities'', the purpose is to make the target reader feel the same as the source target reader. Since this is a literary text, the cultural factors and rhetorical methods used in the source texts should be reflected in the target text. In addition, the feeling of the target text reader should be taken into consideration in the process of translation. Therefore, the translation should conform to habits of the target language. But guided by Skopos Theory, the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation can be easily analyzed, so that a better solution can be founded between human translation and machine translation.

===3. Machine Translation and Human Translation===
Translation activities have a long history. As far as China is concerned, translation has a history of more than two thousand years. However, the translation tools have rarely changed, and the translations are always been done by "translators". With the development of science and technology and the acceleration of globalization, there is an increasing need for translation. Therefore， "machine" translation has emerged. High efficiency and low cost of machine translation make people think about whether machine translation will replace human translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

====3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of human translation====
Human translation has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, human translation has the characteristics of flexibility, accuracy, high readability and humanization of language. At the same time, however, compared with machine translation, human translation is less efficient and easy to be influenced by translator's own cultural background and translation capacity so it is difficult to achieve rapid development. Before the advent of machine translation, all translation activities were done by human. Compared with machine, translators, as a bridge of cross-cultural communication, are more flexible. Translation itself is a complex activity. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

Professional translators who have certain cultural background knowledge can choose different translation methods and strategies according to the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures, so it is more flexible and accurate. The flexibility of human language enables the translator to express the meaning of the original text in a more abundant language, and accurately handle the rhetorical devices in the original text. Therefore, the target text of human translation must be more readable than that of machine translation. Human translation has a long history, and people's research on translation has never stopped. Many excellent translators have emerged in the world and put forward various translation ideas and strategies. Translation has established a relatively mature and complete theory. With the rapid development of China's economy and the increasing number of foreign exchanges, the demand for translation is on the rise. At the same time, the time spent on translation needs to be shortened. Therefore, manual translation alone cannot meet the needs of the translation market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

====3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of machine translation====
Machine translation refers to thefact that a language can be transferred into another language automatically with the help of machine. The idea of machine translation was firstly put forward by Weaver in his book Translation in 1949. Since the end of the 20th century, the development of the Internet and computer technology has provided more optional software and engines for machine translation. At the same time, the corpus has become richer and more complete, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

The current machine translation is based on the "Neural Machine Translation" (NMT) model of artificial intelligence. Currently, the popular web page machine translations include Youdao Translation, Baidu Translation, Google Translation and so on. Google is currently in a leading position in both voice translation and text translation. Google Translation is a service provided by Google to translate texts and web pages, providing instant translation between more than 100 languages. It can provide translations of words, sentences and web pages between any two languages it supports. The more human translation documents that can be analyzed for a particular language are, the higher the quality of the translation is. In addition, Google's web page translation is fast, especially free to use, so it has a considerable number of users in translation activities, especially students. Therefore, this paper will take Google Translation and Baidu Translation as an example to analyze the translation quality, which is representative in the market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

Generally speaking, machine translation has the characteristics of high efficiency, low cost, accuracy of terminology translation, and great development potential. Machine translation is fast and efficient, for which human translation cannot match. Secondly, the price of machine translation is low, even free, which greatly reduces the economic cost and time cost for those who do not require high translation quality. In addition, compared to human translation, the huge corpus established by machine translation makes the translation of some terms, especially the latest scientific and technological terms, faster and more accurate. The accurate translation of these terms requires continuous learning by the translator, and learning requires a process, which has a certain test of the translator's learning ability and learning speed. At this point, human translation has uncertainty and lag. Finally, although the history of machine translation is short, it has achieved rapid development. With the advancement of science and technology and the development of society, the functions of machine translation will be more perfect and the quality of translation will be better. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

First of all, from a microscopic point of view, machine translation often has problems in the choice of word meaning, especially when there is one word with different meanings. It needs the translator to select the meaning based on the context, while machine translation cannot accurately choose the meaning of a word in combination with the context. What’s more, the word order of the translated sentence often does not conform to the word order and expression habits of the target language. From the aspect of tense, it is more accurate when translating English into Chinese, because words in English can directly change tense. However, there are sometimes problems such as no corresponding tenses when translating Chinese into English. From a macro point of view, machine translation does not have cultural sensitivity and is not accurate enough for the translation of some idioms and proverbs with strong cultural color. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

====3.3 Relationship between machine translation and human translation====
Machine translation is based on human translation, and the establishment of corpus that machine translation relies on needs human participation. When translating technical terms, machine translation corpus and parallel text can greatly reduce the time when find and determine proper equivalent terms. However, the establishment of these corpora needs well-translated materials. The accuracy and usability of corpus are also affected by the quality of human translation. Therefore, they restrict and influence each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

There are more or less defects in the micro and macro aspects of machine translation. At the micro level, it mainly includes vocabulary, syntax, tense, and so on. However, at the macro level, it mainly includes text cohesion and cultural background. Therefore, human translation is essential. In addition, all machine translation inspection, modification, sorting and other work must also be carried out manually, so as to make the translation quality better and meet the requirements of communication. It can be seen that machine translation alone cannot meet the requirements of high quality translation. Translation activities cannot be separated from human participation. Therefore, with the development of machine translation, translation should be completed by both machine and human. The two are related, influenced with each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)

===4. Case Study from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===
A Tale of Two Cities is a long historical novel by British writer Charles Dickens, first published in 1859. The story is set in the French Revolution and has a touching plot. It is one of the world's literary classics. The twin cities refer to Paris and London. The story connects these two cities and tells the story of the Parisian doctor Manette. He was persecuted by the brothers of the Marquis St. Evremonde due to injustice and was detained in the Bastille prison for 18 years. After being released from prison, Mannette's daughter Lucie fell in love with the enemy's son Darney. Thus, in the whirlpool of the French Revolution, scenes of family grievances and hatred were staged grandly. Life and death, good and evil were blended in conflict and changed in an instant. On the guillotine, Carton calmly sacrificed his life for love. （Dickens 2016）

A Tale of Two Cities has a rigorous structure and condensed language. Dickens's profound thinking on revolution and humanity and his breathtaking writing talent are fully demonstrated. This paper selects the most representative classic sentences in the text for comparative analysis of translation, studies whether neural network machine translation software can accurately translate classic literary works, and explores whether neural network machine translation will replace manual translation in the context of artificial intelligence. The human translation was by Zhaolin Song. Among the many translation versions in China, Song’s translation was regarded as the version which closes to the source text most. (Feng Baoyin 2018, 232)

====4.1 Case Study from the perspective of Skopos Rule====
In Vermeer’ opinion, the dominant rule for any translation should be the skopos rule, which means that a translation action is determined by its purposes. That is to say, the translation action should be in accordance with the target context and culture. The purposes of target text determine the translation strategies and methods used in translation process. A good translation should conform to the target culture and meet target audiences’ expectations. According to Nord, “Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful’ translation, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which the translation is needed”. Once the intended purposes are achieved, the translation will be considered as reasonable and proper. It is unnecessary for the translation to be equivalent to the source text. (Nord 1997, 102)

Example 1: We were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way--in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. （Dickens 2016, 15）

Google translation: 我们都直接去天堂，我们都直接去天堂- -简而言之，这一时期与目前的时期如此遥远，以至于它的一些最吵闹的当局坚持以最高的比较程度来接受它是好是坏。

Baidu translation: 我们是所有的人都直接去天堂，我们都朝着另一个方向去——简而言之，这个时期和现在的时代非常相似，以至于一些最吵闹的权威坚持要接受它，不管是好是坏，只是在最高级的比较中。

Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 我们大家都在直升天堂，我们大家都在直下地狱——简而言之，那个时代和当今这个时代是如此相似，因而一些吵嚷不休的权威们也坚持认为，不管它是好是坏，都只能用“ 最……”来评价它。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 20)

Analysis:
Since this is selected from a novel, the purpose of translation should be express the meaning and beauty of the source text. As for the Google translation, there was a mistake in translating "We were all going directly the other way". The translated meaning is totally different from the original. As to Baidu translation, it expressed the meaning of the original text, but the way it expressed the original meaning may confuse the target text reader. In regards to human translation, the translator of this edition adopts the combination of literal translation and free translation. In this way, the translation not only clearly expresses the original meaning, but also takes into account the literariness of the work, so that readers can feel the characteristics of the times more vividly

====4.2 Case study from the perspective of coherence rule====
Coherence rule is also called “intra-textual coherence”, which means that the translation should be acceptable and understandable for the target audiences and be meaningful in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received. In other words, the target text should conform to the target receivers’ situation, including their given knowledge, background culture and specific circumstances. (Nord 1997, 120)

Example 2: Questions, questions, questions! (Charles Dickens 2016, 56)

Google Translation: 问题，问题，问题！

Baidu Translation: 问题，问题，问题！

Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 问题一个接一个地提出来！(Song Zhaolin 2005, 68)

Analysis: In this sentence, the original text uses three "questions" in a row to enhance the tone. However, Google and Baidu Translation directly translated it into "问题，问题，问题！", which sounds too blunt to read. The target text translated by Google and Baidu cannot reflect the meaning of the original text. What's more, it makes it hard for target readers to get the meaning of the text. While the translator chose the free translation method to make the translation more natural and smooth. The translated text followed the coherence rule in the process of translation.

Example 3: But just because he had a powerful enemy---an enemy with the power to send him to prison and to keep him there, hidden and forgotten, for eighteen years. (Charles Dickens 2016, 102)

Google translation: 但是仅仅因为他有一个强大的敌人-一个有能力将他送进监狱并将其隐藏和遗忘在监狱里长达十八年的敌人。

Baidu translation:只是因为他有一个强大的敌人，一个有能力把他送进监狱，把他关在那里，隐藏起来，被遗忘18年。

Human translation(Song Zhaolin): 而只是因为他有一个强大的敌人-这个敌人拥有权势将他投进监狱，而且把他在那里与世隔绝、被人遗忘地关了18年。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 130)

Analysis: In terms of grammar, English uses long sentences, which are connected by functional words, such as conjunctions, prepositions and relative words. Its syntactic structure is relatively complex and it is a hypotactic language. Chinese is a paratactic language. In the process of E-C translation, we often use disassembly syntax to translate a long and complex English sentence into several short and simple Chinese short sentences. From Google Translation, it directly translated the structure of the original text. The target text created by Google translation doesn't conform to target language structure. While the translation of Baidu almost in accordance with the target language structure. As to the human translation, not only was the structure, but also the meaning was perfectly expressed.

====4.3 Case study from the perspective of fidelity rule====
Fidelity rule is also named by Vermeer as “intertextual coherence”, which puts emphasis on the relationship between the source text and target text. Based on Skopos theory, fidelity rule requires that the target text should be in accordance with the source text, which means the information contained in the source text should be exactly conveyed by the target text under the translators’ efforts. (Nord 1997, 140)

Example 1: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us. （Dickens 2016, 15）

Google Translation: 那是最美好的时光，那是最糟糕的时光，那是智慧的时代，那是愚昧的时代，那是信仰的时代，那是轻信的时代，那是光明的季节，是黑暗的季节，是希望的春天，是绝望的冬天，我们眼前的一切，眼前的一切。

Baidu Translation: 那是最好的时代，最坏的时代，智慧的时代，愚昧的时代，信仰的时代，不信的时代，光明的季节，黑暗的季节，希望的春天，绝望的冬天，我们面前什么都有，面前什么都没有。

Human Translation (Zhaolin Song): : 那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代；那是个睿智的年月，那是个蒙昧的年月；那是信心百倍的时期，那是疑虑重重的时期；那是阳光普照的季节，那是黑暗笼罩的季节；那是充满希望的春天，那是让人绝望的冬天；我们面前无所不有，我们面前一无所有。（Song Zhaolin 2005, 20）

Analysis: This is the classic opening paragraph in "A Tale of Two Cities", and it can be said to be very popular. On the whole, because of the simple structure of this paragraph, the two machine-translated translations all accurately express the content of the original text, but one shortcoming is that it is difficult for machine translation to express the unique beauty of rhythm of the original text.

Through the analysis of the translation of commonly used machine translation software and human translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, we can conclude that for the translation of literary works, machine translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text, even equal to manual translation if there are only some simple expressions in the source texts. However, the quality of machine translation needs to be improved some sentences with complex sentence patterns and difficult grammatical structures. Therefore, the translation of literary works by machines still have a long way to go.

===5. Conclusion===
The main purpose of this paper is to find a better solution between machine translation and human translation under the guidance of the Skopos Theory for optimizing weaknesses of machine translation platforms, which not only generates solutions to errors, but also improves the quality of machine translation.

Theoretically, this paper applies Skopos Theory to guide human translation and machine translation of literary texts. Machine translation can be regarded as a basis of human translation, while those errors caused by machine translation can be improved manually after the completion of machine translation. Meanwhile, by employing appropriate translation methods and techniques, such as semantic conversion, amplification, omission and so on, human translation based on machine translation enormously solves errors in machine translation which further optimizes weaknesses of machine translation. Human translation process also becomes more efficient with the help of machine

As for machine translation, firstly, machine translation platforms can’t replace translators on account of its incomplete corpus and limitations in transferring the cultural meaning. Secondly, errors at lexical level caused by defects of machine translation are much more than that at syntactical level. Lastly, machine translation platforms are restricted by contexts of language, situation and culture which lead to incorrect target text.

In regard with human translation, from the perspective of Skopos theory, human translation is more understandable and readable to target readers than that of machine translation. It’s essential for the translator to know typical errors in machine translation, features of machine translation platforms and characteristics of the source text, which could fascinate the efficiency of translation. All in all, machine translation platforms enhance the efficiency of translating large amount of material and human translation provides a solution for machine translation of poor quality. Machine translation and human translation are complement to each other.

===References===
* Charles Dickens. (2016). A Tale of Two Cities. Macmillian.

* Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2011). 中国译学大辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China] 上海外语教育出版社(leave a blank space)Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

* Feng Baoyin(leave a blank space)冯宝茵 (2018). 从读者反应论对比两个《双城记》译本 [A comparative study of two versions of a tale of two cities from the perspective of reader response theory]. 北方文学, Northern Literature (36):232.

* Hu Kaibao & Li Yi胡开宝 & 李翼. (2016). 机器翻译特征及其与人工翻译关系的研究. [Research on the characteristics of machine translation and its relationship with human translation] 中国翻译 Chinese Translation (05),10-14.

* Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.

* Mark Shuttleworth (2004). Dictionary of Translation Studies. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 75.

* Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London: Routeledge. 78.

* Reiss, K & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.

* Song Zhaolin(leave a blank space)宋兆霖 (2005). 双城记 A Tale of Two Cities 中国戏剧出版社, China Drama Press.

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2020-12-21T07:58:57Z

Zhang Hui: /* The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译 */