China Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]

20201228 cult

2020-12-28T04:14:59Z

Zhang Yinliu: /* Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 */

==Alsied, Saffana==

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==

==Chen Han 陈涵==

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

1.When people see some things as beautiful, other things become ugly. When people see some things as good, other things become bad.

当人们将某些事物视为美丽时，其他事物则变得丑陋。当人们将某些事情视为好事时，其他事情则变得不好。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.In China, the work has been by many attributed to Confucius himself, but the philological investigations to date do not allow to go back to a reliable source, partly because of the devastating book burning of 213 BC by the First Emperor Qin Shi Huang.

在中国，许多人把这本书归功于孔子本人，但迄今为止的语言研究还不能追溯到可靠的来源，部分原因是秦始皇秦始皇于公元前213年毁灭性地烧毁了这本书。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.One realizes it, while another is ignorant of it.

一个人意识到了这一点，而另一个人则一无所知。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.Perhaps I don’t understand economics, but economics does not understand me, either.

也许我不了解经济学，但经济学却不了解也了解我.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 15:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
1. 道可道，非常道；名可名，非常名。

The Tao that can be trodden is not the enduring and unchanging Tao.

The name that can be named is not the enduring and unchanging name.

2. 子曰：“学而时习之，不亦悦乎？有朋自远方来，不亦乐乎？人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎？”

The Master said, To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt, is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, is this not after all delightful? To remain unsound even though one's merits are unrecognized by others, is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman?

3. 菩提本无树，明镜亦非台。本来无一物，何处惹尘埃。

No such thing as the Budhi tree,

Nor a mirror stand that can be.

There is nothing in the first place,

Whereon can the dust and dirt creep?

4. 生之享受包括许多东西：我们本身的享受、家庭生活的享受，树木、花朵、云霞、溪流、瀑布，以及大自然的形形色色，都足以称为享受；此外又有诗歌、艺术、沉思、友情、谈天、读书等的享受，后者的这些都是心灵交流的不同表现。

The enjoyment of life covers many things: the enjoyment of ourselves, of home life, of trees, flowers, clouds, winding rivers and falling cataracts and the myriad things in Nature, and then the enjoyment of poetry, art, contemplation, friendship, conversation, and reading, which are all some form or other of the communion of spirits.
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The enjoyment of life includes many things: our own enjoyment, the enjoyment of family life, trees, flowers, clouds, streams, waterfalls, and all kinds of nature are enough to be called enjoyment; in addition, there are poetry, art, contemplation, the enjoyment of friendship, chatting, reading, etc., the latter are all different manifestations of spiritual communication.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

1.老子曾做过周朝守藏史，后退隐，作《道德经》，其思想的核心是“道”。

Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before he retired from public life. It is widely believed that he was the author of Tao Te Ching and the core of Lao Zi's thought is "Tao".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before he lived in seclusion. It is widely believed that he was the author of Tao Te Ching and the core of his thoughts is "Tao".--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Lao Zi once worked as an archivist in the imperial library of the Zhou Dynasty before his retirement. Later he created the Tao Te Ching, of which the core thought is "Tao".--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》记录了孔子的言行。它涵盖了广泛的主题，从政治、哲学、文学和艺术到教育再到道德修养。

The Analects of Confucius records the words and deeds of Confucius. It covers a wide variety of subjects, ranging from politics, philosophy, literature and art to education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Analects of Confucius records the words and deeds of Confucius. It covers a wide variety of subjects, ranging from politics, philosophy, literature to art,and from education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The Analects recorded Confucius' words and deeds. It covers a wide range of topics, from politics, philosophy, literature and art to education to moral cultivation.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.惠能禅学思想的主要特点是“识心见性”和“顿悟成佛”。

The main features of Hui Neng's Zen thoughts are "knowing the heart and seeing the nature" and "becoming Buddha by epiphany".--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

Hui Neng's Zen thoughts are characterized by "knowing the heart and seeing the nature" and "becoming Buddha by epiphany".--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是一本洗涤心灵的书籍，是一杯好茶，是一种良药。阅读此书能使我们被尘沙玷污的心灵洗涤，使我们能在嚣闹的城市中得到宁静。

The Importance of Living is a book for washing the soul, a good cup of tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can wash our hearts polluted by dust and sand, and make us get peace in the noisy city.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:52, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Importance of Living is a book for refreshing the soul, a good cup of tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can purify our hearts tarnished by dust and sand, and make us get peace in the noisy city.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The Importance of Living is a book that cleanses the mind, a cup of good tea and a good medicine. Reading this book can wash our hearts stained with dust and allow us to find peace in noisy cities--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, Tao Te Ching has a profound influence on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thought, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Analects embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.《慧能经》主张世上一切事物空幻不实，即对于现实世界不应执著或留恋。

The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is empty and unreal, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Sutra of Hui-neng holds that everything in the world is illusory, that is, it should not be persistent or nostalgic for the real world.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周。

The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 15:13, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

The Importance of Living is Lin Yutang's first book after his study in the United States, which was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the bestseller list for 52 weeks.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 15:59, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==

==Grosheva, Anna==

1. Yet mystery and manifestations arise from the same source. This source is called darkness.

然而神秘和表现来自同一来源。这种来源称为黑暗。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Started during the Spring and Autumn Period, the work of collection and organization of Confucian teachings was probably completed during the Warring States Period, although the precise date of publication of the complete work is unknown.

春秋时期开始，儒家教义的收集和整理工作可能是在战国时期完成的，尽管确切的出版日期尚不清楚。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. Through ten chapters, the Platform Sutra cites and explains a wide range of Mahayana Buddhist scriptures.

在十章中，《纲经》引用并解释了大乘佛教经文。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. The ancient people who desired to have a clear moral harmony in the world would first order their national life.

希望在世界上建立清晰的道德和睦的远古民族首先会下定民族生活。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

1.《论语》是儒家的经典著作之一，它是对孔子及其弟子的言行和对话的记录。众所周知，孔子是一位伟大的思想家和哲学家，他的思想被发展成了的儒家哲学体系。《论语》是儒家思想的代表作，数个世纪以来，《论语》一直极大地影响着中国人的哲学观和道德观，它也影响着其他亚洲国家人民的哲学观和道德观。

The Analects of Confucius is one of the Confucius classics and is a record of the words and acts of Confucius and his disciples,as well as the conversations they held.It's
well known that Confucius is agreat ideologist and philosopher,and his thoughts have been developed into a system of philosophyknownasConfucianism.The Analects ofConfucius
is a representative work of Confucianism.For centuries, it has been heavily influencing the philosophy and moral outlook of Chinese people and that of the people of other Asian countries as well.

2.慧能的两个核心理念成为了正统佛教的精髓要义，其一，“无论社会阶层，无论精神文化，一切众生皆有佛性”；其二，“醒觉并非依靠冥想渐悟，而是一种瞬间的顿悟。”

His two key ideas became the essence of orthodox Buddhism, namely that "all people,regardless of their social, culturalor spiritual condition, possess the Buddha nature" and that "awakening is not a meditation but a sudden, instantaneous process."

3.一次，学生子贡问孔子：“有一言而可以终身行之者乎？”子曰：“其恕乎。己所不欲，勿施于人。”

Once,Zi Gong, one of Confucius’ disciples, asked the philosopher: “Is there any one word that can guide one throughout his life?”Confucius answered:“
Maybe it’s magnanimity! What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.”

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

"The Art of Life" is the first book created by Lin Yutang in the United States, and it is also another English work that has achieved success after "My Country and My People". The book was published in the United States in 1937, reprinted more than forty times, and translated into more than ten languages.--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]]

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

1. Laozi in the Tao Te Ching explains that the Tao is not a "name" for a "thing" but the underlying natural order of the Universe whose ultimate essence is difficult to circumscribe due to it being non-conceptual yet evident in one's being of aliveness.

《道德经》中的老子解释道是不是“事物”的“名称”，而是宇宙的内在自然秩序，由于其非概念性但在生命力中很明显，其最终本质很难被限制。

2. Analects is the China’s sacred book, the representative work of Confucianism. A collection of answers of dialogues between Confucius and his disciples.

《论语》是中国的圣书，是儒家的代表作。孔子与门徒之间对话的答案的集合。

《论语》是中国的圣书，是儒家的代表作。孔子与门徒对话的答案集。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3. Lin Yutang was a Chinese inventor, linguist, novelist, philosopher, and translator. His informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the West.

林语堂是中国发明家，语言学家，小说家，哲学家和翻译家。他的中英文不拘一格但又优美的风格使他成为这一代人中最有影响力的作家之一，他将经典的中国文字汇编和翻译成英文在西方是畅销书。--[[User:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|GUIROU BARTHELEMY]] ([[User talk:GUIROU BARTHELEMY|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Guo Lu 郭露==

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==

1.陆上丝绸之路起源于西汉（前202年—8年）汉武帝派张骞出使西域开辟的以首都长安（今西安）为起点，经甘肃、新疆，到中亚、西亚，并连接地中海各国的陆上通道。

The land Silk Road originated from the Western Han Dynasty (202-8 BC) when Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty sent Zhang Qian to the western regions to open up a land passage from Chang'an (today's Xi'an), the capital, to Central Asia and West Asia via Gansu and Xinjiang, and to connect Mediterranean countries.

2.海上丝绸之路形成于汉武帝时期。南海航线从中国出发，向西航行，是海上丝绸之路的主线。

The maritime silk road was formed in the time of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty. The South China Sea route, which starts from China and sails westward, is the mainstream of the maritime silk road.

3.苏曼殊浪漫主义不是西学东渐的直接产物，而是固有文化生态发生结构变动之结果。

The formation of Su Manshu's romantic style was not the direct result of the eastward spread of Western learning but was the natural outcome of structural change in China's innate cultural ecosystem.

4.洋务派是中国近代最早的全面系统地接触近代科学技术的一个政治派别。

Advocates of the westernization movement was the first political school that touched modern science and technology comprehensively and systematically in China.

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
1. 《道德经》简称老子，是中国的经典文本。根据传统，它是由公元前6世纪的圣人老子所写，老子是周朝的一位记录者，在中国广为人知。尽管最早出土的文字可以追溯到公元前4世纪晚期，但文字的真正作者和撰写或编纂日期仍有争议。

1. The Tao Te Ching simply referred to as the Laozi，is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi, a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated, although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.

2. 《论语》是儒家学派的经典著作之一，由孔子的弟子及其再传弟子编撰而成。它以语录体和对话文体为主，记录了孔子及其弟子言行，集中体现了孔子的政治主张、论理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

2. The Analects is one of the classical works of Confucianism, compiled by the disciples of Confucius and his disciples. It is mainly in the style of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on Confucius' political ideas, theoretical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles.

3. 《慧能经》附有慧能对《金刚经》的逐条注释——这是它有史以来第一次出版的英文译本。他的谈话集也被称为《六祖坛经》，是唯一的禅宗记录，一般被尊称为经，或经文。

3. The Sutra of Hui-neng is here accompanied by Hui-neng's verse-by-verse commentary on the Diamond Sutra—in its very first published English translation ever.This collection of his talks, also known as the Platform or Altar Sutra, is the only Zen record of its kind to be generally honored with the appellation sutra, or scripture.

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

4. “The Art of Living” was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful work in English. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 07:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"The Art of Living" was the first book created by Lin Yutang in the United States, and it is also another English work that has been successful since then. The book was published in the United States in 1937, and it ranked first in the United States bestseller list for 52 weeks in the following year,and has been republished more than forty times, and has been translated for more than ten languages.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，并为十余种文字所翻译。

''The Art of Living'' was Lin Yutang's first book after he had traveled to the U.S. and was another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks at the following year. Besides, it was reprinted more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:20, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
1. 《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。、

Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion. --[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:20, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》中保留了一些人们对孔子师徒的批评讽刺，有的作了辩驳，有的没有回答。

The Analects of Confucius retains some criticisms and ironies of Confucius' teachers and disciples, some of which have made refutation, while others have not.

3. 慧能的禅法以定慧为本，认为觉性本有，烦恼本无。

Huineng's Zen method is based on determining wisdom, thinking that awareness is inherent, but troubles are not.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:20, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 《活着》是作家余华的代表作之一，讲述了在大时代背景下，随着内战、三反五反，大跃进，文化大革命等社会变革，徐福贵的人生和家庭不断经受着苦难，到了最后所有亲人都先后离他而去，仅剩下年老的他和一头老牛相依为命。

Living is one of Yu Hua's representative works, which tells how Xu Fugui's life and family are constantly suffering with the civil war, the three anti-five evils, the Great Leap Forward, the Cultural Revolution and other social changes. In the end, all his relatives have left him one after another, leaving only an old cow.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:20, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
1.《道德经》九九八十一章，可理解为《道经》（上篇）和《德经》（下篇）两个部分，言简意赅、博大精深。大至宇宙、小至微尘，大无其外，小无其内；有修身、用人、治国。

The eighty-one chapters of the Tao Te Ching, which can be understood as two parts, the Tao Te Ching (upper part) and the De Te Ching (lower part), are concise and profound. It is as big as the universe and as small as the dust; there is no outside of the big and no inside of the small; there is the cultivation of the body, the use of people and the governance of the country.

2.《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects, one of the classics of Confucianism, is mainly a collection of essays in the form of discourses and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, concentrating on the political, aesthetic, moral, ethical and utilitarian values of Confucius.

3.相传，有一位名叫慧能的砍柴夫，虽然目不识丁，却开创了佛教的南禅宗派，提出“人人皆有佛性”，进而确立“顿悟成佛”之学。

According to legend, an illiterate woodsman called Huineng founded the "Sudden Enlightenment" or the Southern Chan School of Buddhism and propounded the idea that everyone possesses "the Buddha nature."

4.生活是10%的经历，和90%的态度。我们无时无刻不在书写我们的生活经历，我们可以选择生活的台词。当下，我们可以放下自我怀疑、愤怒、沮丧。当下，我们可以选择幸福。

Life is 10% what happens to you and 90% how you interpret it and put it into perspective.Right now we're writing our life stories, and we can choose how the script will read. Right now we can put behind us self-doubt, anger, frustration. Right now, we can choose happiness.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Life is 10% experience and 90% attitude. Right now we're experiencing our life, and we can choose how to live. Right now we can put behind our self-doubt, anger, frustration. Right now, we can choose happiness.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:22, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
1、丝绸之路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。数千年来，游牧民族或部落、商人、教徒、外交家、士兵和学术考察者沿着丝绸之路四处活动。

The Silk Road is considered to be the ancient crossroads of eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, with Silk being the most iconic cargo. For thousands of years, nomadic peoples or tribes, merchants, religious, diplomats, soldiers and academic researchers moved around along the Silk Road.

2、郑和七次奉旨率船队远航西洋，航线从西太平洋穿越印度洋，直达西亚和非洲东岸，途经30多个国家和地区。他的航行比哥伦布发现美洲大陆早87年，比达·伽马早92年，比麦哲伦早114年。在世界航海史上，他开辟了贯通太平洋西部与印度洋等大洋的直达航线。

Zheng He was ordered to lead seven voyages to the Atlantic Ocean, with routes from the western Pacific Ocean across the Indian Ocean to West Asia and the east coast of Africa, passing through more than 30 countries and regions. His voyage was 87 years before Columbus discovered the American continent, 92 years before Da Gama, and 114 years before Magellan. In the history of world navigation, he opened up a direct route through the western Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean and other great oceans.

3、西学书籍的翻译和著述，是西学东渐相当重要的媒介，在当时出现了大量的由教士及士大夫合著合译的书籍，但这些书籍未能受到当时一般社会的重视，也未能打入晚明已十分发达的商业出版界，因此虽西学书籍有刻印出版，但主要仍仅流通于少数有兴趣的士大夫阶层。

The translation and writing of books on Western studies was an important medium for the gradual expansion of Western studies to the east. A large number of books co-authored and translated by clergy and scholars emerged at that time, but these books were not taken seriously by the general society at that time, nor did they penetrate into the commercial publishing world, which was already well developed in the late Ming Dynasty.

4、随着军事工业的创办，洋务派认识到，强大的国防基础在于整个国家经济的发展，要求能源、钢铁等工业与之配套。同时，为了维护民族利益，也必须发展民族经济，与洋人"商战"、"争利"。于是，他们提出了求富的口号，民用工业和新式交通运输业也发展起来了。

With the founding of the military industry, the School of Westernization realized that the basis of a strong national defense lay in the development of the entire national economy, requiring energy, steel and other industries to go along with it. At the same time, in order to safeguard national interests, it was also necessary to develop the national economy and to "negotiate" and "compete for profits" with the foreigners. Thus, they put forward the slogan of seeking wealth, and the civil industry and new transportation industry were developed.--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:10, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
1. 写于两千多年前的《道德经》是真正的精神文学经典之一。它是一个培养和平、宁静和同情的指南。
Written more than two thousand years ago, the Tao Te Ching is one of the true classics of spiritual literature. It is a guide to cultivating peace, serenity, and compassion.

The Tao Te Ching, written more than two thousand years ago, is one of the true spiritual literature classics. It is a guide to cultivate peace, tranquility and compassion.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》写于春秋战国时期（约公元前479年至公元前221年），被认为是儒家思想最具代表性的著作之一，至今仍对中国文化和东亚产生了重大影响。
Written during the Period of Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period (ca. 479 BC - 221 BC), the Analects are considered among the most representative works of Confucian thought, and still have a great influence on Chinese culture and East Asia.

3.慧能（638-713）也许是禅宗中最受人喜爱和尊敬的人物。他本是一个目不识丁的樵夫，却一下子获得了觉悟，成为中国禅宗的第六宗师，被誉为“顿悟派”的创始人。
Hui-neng (638–713) is perhaps the most beloved and respected figure in Zen Buddhism. An illiterate woodcutter who attained enlightenment in a flash, he became the Sixth Patriarch of Chinese Zen, and is regarded as the founder of the "Sudden Enlightenment" school.

4.生活的艺术是对现代世界令人眼花缭乱的节奏的一种讽刺、诙谐的解毒剂。
The Importance of Living is a wry, witty antidote to the dizzying pace of the modern world.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

The art of living is an ironic and witty antidote to the dazzling rhythm of the modern world.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。

As one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, ''Tao Te Ching'' has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion.

Tao Te Ching, as one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, has a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.孔子因材施教，对于不同的对象，考虑其不同的素质、优点和缺点、进德修业的具体情况，给予不同的教诲，表现了诲人不倦的可贵精神。

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. He gave different instructions to different students, taking into account their different qualities, strengths and weaknesses, and the specific circumstances of their advancement and cultivation, showing the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.

Confucius taught students in accordance with their aptitude. For different objects, he considered their different qualities, advantages and disadvantages, and the specific situation of moral education, and gave different instructions, which showed the valuable spirit of tireless teaching.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.近年来，中国大多数学者都认为《坛经》的基本内容代表了慧能思想，同时其中也有后人增益的成分。

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of the ''The Sutra of Huineng'' represents the thought of Huineng, while there are also some elements of later additions to it.

In recent years, most Chinese scholars believe that the basic content of Tanjing represents Huineng's thought, and it also contains the later additions.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是林语堂旅美专事创作后的第一部书，也是继《吾国与吾民》之后再获成功的又一英文作品。该书于1937年在美国出版，次年便居美国畅销书排行榜榜首达52周，且接连再版四十余次，被翻译为十余种文字全球发行。

''The Importance of Living'' was the first book after Lin Yutang had traveled to the United States and was another successful work in English after ''My Country and My People''. It was published in the United States in 1937 and topped the American bestseller list for 52 weeks the following year, and was republished more than forty times and translated into more than a dozen languages for global distribution.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Art of Life'' is the first book written by Lin Yutang after his trip to the United States. It is also another successful English work after ''My Country and My People''. The book was published in the United States in 1937. The following year, it ranked the top of the best seller list in the United States for 52 weeks. It has been reprinted for more than 40 times and has been translated into more than 10 languages for global distribution.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
1、传统的丝绸之路，起自中国古代都城长安，经中亚国家、阿富汗、伊朗、伊拉克、叙利亚等而达地中海，以罗马为终点，全长6440公里。这条路被认为是连结亚欧大陆的古代东西方文明的交汇之路，而丝绸则是最具代表性的货物。

The traditional Silk Road, which started from Chang'an, the ancient capital of China, and reached the Mediterranean Sea via Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, and Syria, and ended in Rome, was 6,440 kilometers long. This road is considered to be the intersection of ancient eastern and western civilizations linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo. The road reached the Mediterranean Sea from Iraq, Syria, etc. and ended in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the crossroads of ancient civilizations between East and West, linking Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative cargo.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The traditional Silk Road started in the ancient Chinese capital of Chang'an, and reached the Mediterranean through Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, etc., ending in Rome, with a total length of 6,440 kilometers. This road is considered to be the intersection of the ancient Eastern and Western civilizations connecting Asia and Europe, and silk is the most representative goods.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 17:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、东海航线，也叫“东方海上丝路”。春秋战国时期，齐国在胶东半岛开辟了“循海岸水行”直通辽东半岛、朝鲜半岛、日本列岛直至东南亚的黄金通道。唐代，山东半岛和江浙沿海的中韩日海上贸易逐渐兴起。宋代，宁波成为中韩日海上贸易的主要港口。

The East Sea Route, also known as the "Eastern Sea Silk Road". During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the State of Qi opened up a golden route on the Jiaodong Peninsula, which led to the Liaodong Peninsula, the Korean Peninsula, the Japanese islands and Southeast Asia. During the Tang Dynasty, the maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan on the Shandong Peninsula and the coast of Jiangsu and Zhejiang gradually emerged. During the Song Dynasty, Ningbo became the main port for maritime trade between China, Korea and Japan.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3、东学西渐指的是一个和西学东渐互相补充的东西方文化交流过程。东学西渐有一千多年的历史，对世界文化的发展有十分深远的影响。

Eastern learning and Western learning refers to a process of cultural exchange between East and West that complements Western learning and Eastern learning. With a history of over a thousand years, East to West has had a profound impact on the development of world culture.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4、洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 12:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and resisted the economic input of foreign capitalism to a certain extent, it did not make China prosperous and strong.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
1 《道德经》是中国古代哲学著作。又称《老子》，被道教作为重要经典收入道藏。共81章，分上、下篇。此刻通行本上篇言道，下篇言德。其中有不少和生活有关的处世哲理。

Tao Te Ching is an ancient Chinese philosophical work.Also known as Laozi, Taoism as an important classic into the Collection of Taoism. A total of 81 chapters, divided into the first and second. At this moment, the first text of the passage, the next text of virtue.There are a lot of life related philosophy.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2 《论语》，是孔子弟子及再传弟子记录孔子及其弟子言行而编成的语录文集，成书于战国前期。全书共20篇492章，以语录体为主，叙事体为辅，较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

The Analects of Confucius is a collection of quotations compiled by Confucius and his disciples to record their words and deeds. It was written in the early period of the Warring States Period. The book consists of 20 chapters, with quotations as the main body and narration as the auxiliary body, which mainly reflects the political propositions, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and The Confucian school.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3 慧能俗姓卢，原籍河北范阳（今北京大兴）。他的父亲贬官到了岭南新州（今广东新兴），生下了慧能。慧能年轻时父亲去世，家境贫寒，靠打柴卖柴来养活母亲。

Hui Neng was born in Fanyang, Hebei province (now Daxing, Beijing).His father moved to New South Wales in the Lingnan region and gave birth to Huineng. When Huineng was young, her father died and her family was poor, so she sold firewood to support her mother.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4 林语堂早年留学美国、德国，获哈佛大学文学硕士，莱比锡大学语言学博士。回国后在清华大学、北京大学、厦门大学任教。1945年赴新加坡筹建南洋大学，任校长。曾任联合国教科文组织美术与文学主任、国际笔会副会长等职。

Lin Yutang studied in the United States and Germany in his early years. He received his MA from Harvard University and his PhD in Linguistics from the University of Leipzig.After returning to China, he taught in Tsinghua University, Peking University and Xiamen University. In 1945, he went to Singapore to establish Nanyang University and became its president.He has served as director of Fine Arts and Literature of UNESCO and vice President of the International Pen Association.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 15:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

1.《道德经》内容涵盖哲学、伦理学、政治学、军事学等诸多学科，被后人尊奉为治国、齐家、修身、为学的宝典。它对中国的哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深远的影响，体现了古代中国人的一种世界观和人生观。

Tao Te Ching covers philosophy, ethics, political science, military science and many other disciplines, and is respected as a treasure of governing the country, regulating the family, cultivating self-cultivation and learning. It has a profound influence on Chinese philosophy, science, politics and religion, and embodies a world outlook and outlook on life of ancient Chinese.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。早在春秋后期孔子设坛讲学时期，其主体内容就已初始创成。

The content of the Analects of Confucius involves politics, education, literature, philosophy and the truth of life. As early as the Late Spring and Autumn Period when Confucius set up a lecture platform, its main content had been initially created--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。根据“自性本清净”之说，宣扬“明心见性”“顿悟成佛”的基本思想。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。

The text mainly records Huineng's life story and teachings. According to the theory of "self nature is pure", it advocates the basic ideas of "find one’s ture self" and "insight into Buddhism". The thought of ''Tanjing'' played an important role in the development of Zen.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.本书是一种私人的供状，供认我自己的思想和生活所得的经验。我不想发表客观意见，也不想创立不朽真理。我实在瞧不起自许的客观哲学。

This book is a personal confession of my own thoughts and experiences. I don't want to be objective and create immortal truth because I really despise the objective philosophy of self promise.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.“道”作为《道德经》中最抽象的概念范畴，是天地万物生成的动力源。

The way, as the most abstract concept in Tao Te Ching, is the power source for the creation of all things.

As the most abstract conceptual category in Tao Te Ching, "Tao" is the source of power for the creation of heaven and earth.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:21, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.《论语》主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects of Confucius mainly records the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples in the form of quotations and dialogues, which embodies Confucius' political, aesthetic, moral and utilitarian values.

3.若欲修行，在家亦得，不由在寺。

If people are sincerely keen on the practice,it is no need for them to practise in the temple and they can be successful even at home.

If you want to practice, you can get it at home, so you can't help but stay at the temple.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 17:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，少用“行语”，中等文化的读者都能看懂。

The translation works of Lin Yutang are characterized by fluency and transparency since he hardly adopt jargons,so that his works can be understood by less-educated readers.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

==Phyo, Su Kyi==

1-道德经，也被称为老子或老子，是中国传统文字，传统上被认为是公元前6世纪的圣人老子。文章的作者，撰写日期和编辑日期受到争议。

The Tao Te Ching, also known as Lao Tzu or Laozi, is a Chinese classic text traditionally credited to the 6th-century BC sage Laozi. The text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated.

The ''Tao Te Ching'', also known as Laozi, is a Chinese classic text traditionally credited to the 6th-century BC sage Laozi. The text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2-《论语》约写于公元前500年，传统上归功于孔子。这段文字是由他的学生们在他去世后三十到五十年的时间内写的。

The Analects, were written about 500 BC and are traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his students over a time period spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.

''The Analects'', was written about 500 BC and was traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his disciples over a time period spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Analects'', was written in about 500 BC and was traditionally attributed to Confucius. The text was written by his disciples over a period of time spanning the thirty to fifty years following his death.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3-大建会能，又称禅宗第六祖或禅宗第六祖，是中国禅宗早期历史中的半传奇人物，但却是中心人物。根据传统，他是一个没有受过教育的外行，在听到《金刚经》后突然醒悟。

Dajian Huineng, also commonly known as the Sixth Patriarch or Sixth Ancestor of Chan, is a semi-legendary but central figure in the early history of Chinese Chan Buddhism. According to tradition he was an uneducated layman who suddenly attained awakening upon hearing the Diamond Sutra.

Dajian Huineng, also commonly known as the Sixth Patriarch or Sixth Ancestor of Zen, is a semi-legendary but central figure in the early history of Chinese Zen Buddhism. According to the tradition, he was an uneducated layman who suddenly awakened upon hearing the contents of ''Diamond Sutra''.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4-林语堂是中国发明家，语言学家，小说家，哲学家和翻译家。他的中英文不拘一格但又优美的风格使他成为这一代人中最有影响力的作家之一，他将经典的中国文字汇编和翻译成英文在西方是畅销书。

Lin Yutang was a Chinese inventor, linguist, novelist, philosopher, and translator. His informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the West.--[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 07:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Phyo Su Kyi

==Pingki, Tanchangya==

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
1、据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。

According to UNESCO, ''the Tao Te Ching'' is the most widely translated cultural masterpiece in foreign languages after the ''Bible''.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2、孔子是当时社会上最博学者之一，在世时就被尊奉为“天纵之圣”“天之木铎”，更被后世统治者尊为孔圣人、至圣、至圣先师、大成至圣文宣王先师、万世师表。

Confucius was one of the most famous scholars in the society at that time. He was honored as "the sage of Heaven" and "the Wooden priest of Heaven" when he was alive. He was also honored as the sage of Confucius, the most holy, the most holy Teacher of Confucius, the most holy Master of Dacheng, the king of Wenxuan and the master of all ages by later rulers.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3、经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。根据“自性本清净”之说，宣扬“明心见性”“顿悟成佛”的基本思想。

The sutra mainly records Huineng's life story and his teachings. According to the theory of "self-nature is pure and pure", it advocates the basic idea of "seeing nature with clear heart" and "becoming Buddha with enlightenment".--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4、林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适，诵读了《归去来兮辞》，讲解了《圣经》故事，以及中国人如何品茗，如何行酒令，如何观山，如何玩水，如何看云，如何鉴石，如何养花、蓄鸟、赏雪、听雨、吟风、弄月等等。

Lin yutang talked about in the book zhuangzi's indifferent, praised tao yuanming's leisurely, read the "I'm going home!", explained the bible stories, and how the Chinese tea, how do drinkers' wager game, how to view mountain, how to play water, how to look at the cloud, how to guide, how to grow flowers, birds, snow, rain, song of the wind, to month, and so on.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

==Seydou, Sagara==

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
1.法律制度是治国者统治人民的工具，是统治者为了保障自身的利益与维持社会秩序建构的国家机器，所以老子极力反对这些措施与法令制度。

The legal system is the ruler's tool for ruling the people, and is the state machine constructed by the ruler to protect his own interests and maintain social order. Therefore, Laozi strongly opposed these measures and decrees.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》是中国读书人的基础语言，并影响着全社会的思维结构。中国文化是儒、道、佛三教的合流，但是，这三教在中国文化中的地位决不是三足鼎立的，儒家文化绝对是中国文化的主流，从汉代开始，它就是无可争议的主流意识形态。

The Analects is the basic language of Chinese scholars and influences the thinking structure of the whole society. Chinese culture is an amalgamation of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. However, these three religions are by no means a triumvirate in Chinese culture; Confucianism is definitely the mainstream of Chinese culture, and it has been the undisputed dominant ideology since the Han Dynasty.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.在我国佛教的发展历史上，惠能可以说是影响最大的高僧。南北朝初期达摩祖师入中土，开创禅宗。

In the history of Buddhism in China, the Huineng can be said to be the most influential monk. At the beginning of the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Dharma entered China and started Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》一书，是汇集了许多中西思想家的思想, 再经过林语堂深思熟虑，书写自己的观念与真理的书。

''The Art of Living'' is a book that brings together the thoughts of many Chinese and Western thinkers, and then, after Lin Yutang's careful consideration, he writes his own concepts and truths.--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 14:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==

1.虽然丝绸之路是沿线各国共同促进经贸发展的产物，但很多人认为，中国的张骞两次通西域，开辟了中外交流的新纪元。从此，这条路线被作为“国道”踩了出来，各国使者、商人、传教士等沿着张骞开通的道路，来往络绎不绝。

The Silk Road is the product of joint economic and trade development of countries along the route, but many people think that Zhang Qian’s traveling to the West for two times launched a new era for China and foreign exchanges. Since then, this route was deemed as “international route” as envoys, merchants and missionaries came and went along the route opened by Zhang Qian.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.通过海上丝绸之路，中国还传播着民族工艺和儒道思想，对"海上丝路"沿线国家和地区以及欧洲各地产生不同程度的影响，甚至掀起了"中国热"。其中，瓷器和茶叶对世界有着很大的影响。

China spread its national craft, Confucianism and Taoism through the Maritime Silk Road, impacting countries along the route and European regions of varying degrees and even created “China fever”. Among them, porcelains and Tea have great influence upon the world.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.甲午战争以后，中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。

Because of the First Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people faced the fate of losing their country and families. Thus many scholars started to learn from western countries more positively and comprehensively, and a number of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a great amount of knowledge of natural science and social science and asked political reforms.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.在洋务运动存续的35年里，文化出版事业的发展达到了一个前所未有的水平。京师同文馆、上海广方言馆以及江南制造局的译书馆，是当时翻译西方的中心。译书经历了由单纯的西方科技著作和书籍，向自然科学和社会科学，人文科学等著作并重，甚至后者略占上风的过程。

During the 35 years of The Westernization Movement, the development of culture and publishing reached an unprecedented level. The Tongwenguan in Beijing, the Guangfangyanguan in Shanghai and the Yishuguan of the Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau were the center of translating western works. The translation of books has gone through a process from purely Western scientific and technical works and books to works on natural sciences and social sciences and humanities, with the latter even slightly prevailing.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 11:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

1.汉武帝刘彻即位时，张骞已在朝廷担任名为“郎”的侍从官。据史书记载，他“为人强力，宽大信人”。即具有坚韧不拔、心胸开阔，并能以信义待人的优良品质。建元三年，即公元前138年，张骞“以郎应募，使月氏”。“郎”，是皇帝的侍从官，没有固定职务，又随时可能被选授重任。

When Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty Liu Che assumed the throne, Zhang Qian was already working at the court as a retainer named "Lang". According to historical records, he was "a strong, generous and trustworthy". In other words, he was tough, open-minded, and could treat people with faith and justice. In the third year of Jian Yuan, that is, 138 B.C., Zhang Qian was recruited to make a mission to the Moon Dynasty. The "Lang", the emperor's retainer, has no fixed position, and may be chosen at any time to reappoint.

2.有观点认为，明初时海外威胁受到重视，故有郑和下西洋之事。然而，或许郑和过于成功了，“他的海军满载荣誉胜利归来，并确认帝国没有来自海上的威胁”，因此“郑和与他的随从也可以说失去了继续远航的意义。”

It has been argued that the overseas threat was taken seriously at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, hence Zheng He's voyage to the West. However, perhaps Zheng He was too successful, "his navy returned triumphantly laden with glory and confirmed that there was no threat to the empire from the sea", so "Zheng He and his entourage could be said to have lost the point of continuing their voyage".

3.甲午战争以后，由于中国当时面临着国破家亡的命运，许多有识之士开始更积极全面地向西方学习，出现了梁启超、康有为、谭嗣同等一批思想家。他们向西方学习大量的自然科学和社会科学的知识，政治上也要求改革。这一时期大量的西方知识传入中国，影响非常广泛。许多人以转译日本人所著的西学书籍来接受西学。进入民国时期，由于对政治的不满又进一步导致知识分子们提出全盘西化的主张，在五四时期这种思想造成了很大的影响。这一波的西学东渐，一直持续到当代而未止。

After the First Sino-Japanese War, as China was facing the fate of national ruin, many learned people began to learn more actively and comprehensively from the West, and a group of thinkers emerged, such as Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei and Tan Sitong. They learned a lot of natural and social science knowledge from the West, and also demanded reforms in politics. A great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China during this period, and its influence was very widespread. Many people embraced Western learning by translating Western books written by the Japanese. In the Republican period, dissatisfaction with politics further led intellectuals to advocate wholesale Westernization, which had a great impact in the May Fourth period. This wave of Western learning continued into contemporary times.

4.洋务派前期创办的军事工业，经费由清政府调拨，产品分配给军队使用，管理方式是封建衙门式的。虽然这些企业采用机器生产，但本质上属于带有资本主义因素的封建官办企业。

The military industries founded by the foreign affairs faction in the early period were financed by the Qing government, and the products were allocated to the army for use, and managed in a feudal government office style. Although these enterprises adopted machine production, they were essentially feudal government-run enterprises with capitalist elements.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==

==Wang Xuan 王轩==

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
1. 《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。

The Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history and has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion. According to UNESCO, the Tao Te Ching is the most translated and published cultural masterpiece into foreign languages, except for the Bible.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。早在春秋后期孔子设坛讲学时期，其主体内容就已初始创成。

The Analects covers politics, education, literature, philosophy, and the principles of living in the world. As early as the late Spring and Autumn period, when Confucius set up a forum to teach, the main content of the Analects was already in its infancy.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.《六祖坛经》记载惠能一生得法传法的事迹及启导门徒的言教,内容丰富,文字通俗,是研究禅宗思想渊源的重要依据。

The Sutra of Hui-neng is a richly written account of Hui-neng's life and teachings of his disciples, also working as an important basis for studying the origins of Zen’s thought.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4. 读书使人得到一种优雅和风味，这就是读书的整个目的。读书并不是要“改进心智”，若是如此，一切读书的乐趣便丧失净尽了。

4. Reading gives one a grace and flavor, and that is the whole purpose of reading. Reading is not to "improve the mind"; if it were, all the pleasure of reading would be lost.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Reading gives people an elegance and flavor, which is the whole purpose of reading.Reading is not meant to " improve the mind "; if so, all the pleasure of reading is lost.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==
1.老子说：“上善若水”-—水具有最高的善。老子以水来作比喻，突出他的“不争”哲学思想，与恶意争斗的丛林法则相区别。

1.The highest good is like water, according to Laozi. By making a comparison with water, the ancient philosopher stressed the idea of “not to strive” which stands in stark contrast with the law of the jungle marked by malicious rivalry.

2.孔子修史书，编纂《春秋》，整理古代文献，在文化的继承和发扬上有着卓越的贡献。孔子去世后，弟子们将他的言论编成了《论语》一书。孔子修史书，编纂《春秋》，整理古代文献，在文化的继承和发扬上有着卓越的贡献。孔子去世后，弟子们将他的言论编成了《论语》一书。

2.Confucius revised history books, wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals, and organized ancient texts, which contributed to the development of the Chinese culture. After his death, his students collected his sayings into a book:''the Analects of Confucius''.

3. 道可道,非常道;名可名,非常名.

3.The way that can be told of is not an unvarying names;The names that can be named are not unvarying names.

4.林语堂(1894—1976)，原名玉堂，福建省龙溪县人。现代散文家、小说家，曾留学美国、德国，获哲学博士学位。1922年回国后，在北京大学、北京女子师范大学任教。曾是鲁迅主持的《语丝》撰稿人。

4.Lin Yutang (1894 -- 1976), formerly known as Yutang, was born in Longxi County, Fujian Province.He is a modern essayist, novelist, and has studied abroad in the United States, Germany, and a doctor in philosophy.After returning to China in 1922, he taught in Peking University and Beijing Women's Normal University.He used to be a writer of Threads hosted by Lu Xun.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
1.老子认为世界上的任何事物都是相比较而存在的。美丑、善恶、有无、难易、长短都是相互依存的，有此才有彼，有是才有非，有善才有恶。表面看来，正相反对的两个方面是相互对立的，而实际上又是相互包含、相互渗透的。

1.Laozi believes that everything in the world exists by comparison. Beauty and ugliness, good and evil, existence and existence, difficulty and difficulty, length and length are interdependent. There is one and there is another, there is yes and there is no, there is good and there is evil. On the surface, the two opposite aspects are opposite, but in fact they are mutually contained and permeated.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

2.《论语》既是语录体又是若干断片的篇章集合体。这些篇章的排列不一定有什么道理；就是前后两章间，也不一定有什么关联。而且这些断片的篇章绝不是一个人的手笔。

2.The Analects of Confucius is a collection of quotations and fragments. The arrangement of these chapters does not necessarily make sense; Even between the two chapters, there is not necessarily a connection. And these fragmentary passages are not the work of one man.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

3.毛泽东还谈到过惠能的思想在佛教史上的地位。他说，惠能主张佛性人人皆有，创顿悟成佛之学，一方面使繁琐的佛教简易化，一方面也使从印度传入的佛教中国化。因此，他被视为禅宗的真正创始人。

3.Mao Zedong also talked about the position of Huineng's thought in the history of Buddhism. He said that Huineng advocates that everyone has the Buddha nature and creates the theory of enlightenment to become a Buddha, which, on the one hand, simplifies the tedious Buddhism and, on the other hand, makes the Buddhism introduced from India Chinese. Therefore, he is regarded as the real founder of Zen.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:16, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

4.林语堂早年已立志发明“中文打字机”。当时科学严谨的汉字检索系统仍未建立起来；又由于汉字本身是符号文字而非字母文字，长期以来人们对制成中文打字机的可能性多持怀疑态度。

4.In his early years, Lin yutang aspired to invent the "Chinese typewriter". At that time, the scientific and rigorous Chinese character retrieval system had not yet been established. Because Chinese characters are symbolic characters rather than alphabetic characters, people have long been skeptical of the possibility of making Chinese typewriters.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 13:14, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响。据联合国教科文组织统计，《道德经》是除了《圣经》以外被译成外国文字发布量最多的文化名著。

The Tao Te Ching is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history and has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, and religion . According to UNESCO, the Tao Te Ching is the most popular translated and published cultural masterpiece in foreign languages, except for the Bible.

2.《论语》中的第一句话就是“学而时习之，不亦说乎？”可见，孔子狠强调学用结合、学以致用、言行相符。

The opening sentence of The Analects of Confucius says, “It is indeed a pleasure to acquire knowledge and, as you go on acquiring, to put into practice what you have acquired.” From here we see that Confucius emphasized the integration of learning with application and the consistence of words and actions.

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。

The sutra mainly records Huineng's life story and his teachings. The ideas of the Tanjing played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism. This is the only Chinese Buddhist work that has been honored as a "sutra".

4.1939年，林语堂在美国纽约的世界笔会上发表了一篇《希特勒与魏忠贤》的演讲。他说，当今德国人有人把希特勒比为耶稣，由此他想起中国明朝有一位读书人倡议一说，称颂魏忠贤与孔夫子应当有同样的地位。

In 1939, Lin Yutang made a speech entitled “Hitler and Wei Zhongxian” at a PEN meeting held in New York City. reminded him of a Chinese scholar of the Ming Dynasty, who advocated that Wei Zhongxian, the then dictatorial chief palace eunuch, be ranked as equal of Confucius--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 12:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Xie Fan 解帆==

==Xu Jia 徐佳==

1.《道德经》主要论述“道”与“德”：“道”不仅是宇宙之道、自然之道，也是个体修行即修道的方法；“德”不是通常以为的道德或德行，而是修道者所应必备的特殊的世界观、方法论以及为人处世之方法。

Tao Te Ching mainly discusses "Dao" and "De" : "Dao" is not only the way of universe and nature, but also the method of individual cultivation; "De" is not the morality or virtue as commonly thought, but the special world view, methodology and way of dealing with people that a monastic should have.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

2.《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行，集中体现了孔子的政治、审美、道德伦理和功利等价值思想。

The Analects, one of the Confucian classics，is a collection of quotations and essays, which records the words and deeds of Confucius and his students. It embodies Confucius' thoughts in politics, aesthetics, moral ethics and utilitarianism.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

3.《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。

The Sutra of Huineng, the only one Buddist work that has been honored as "sutra", contributes a lot to the development of Zen.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

The Sutra of Hui-neng, the only Chinese Buddist work that has been honored as "sutra", played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适，诵读了《归去来辞》，还讲解了《圣经》故事，谈及中国人如何品茗，如何行酒令，如何观山，如何玩水，如何看云，如何鉴石，如何养花、蓄鸟、赏雪、听雨、吟风、弄月，等等。

In his book, Lin talked about the unworldliness of Chuang Tzu, praised the leusure of Tao Yuanming，and read one of Tao's prose named On Returning Home. He also explained the stories of the Bible, talked about how the Chinese people taste tea,play drinking games, watch mountains and waters, observe clouds and rocks, raise flowers and birds, enjoy the snow, listen to rain, and enjoy the air and the moon.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 01:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

In the book, Lin Yutang talks about Zhuangzi's indifference, praises Tao Yuanming's leisure, reads the song of returning home, and explains the story of the Bible. He talks about how Chinese people drink tea, how to drink, how to watch mountains, how to play with water, how to see clouds, how to learn from stones, how to raise flowers, keep birds, watch snow, listen to rain, recite wind, and play with the moon, and so on.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
1.丝绸之路全程，从西安经安西、喀什噶尔、撒马尔罕和塞流西亚，直至推罗，直线距离是4200英里，如果加上沿途绕弯的地方，总共约有6000英里，相当于赤道的四分之一。

The Silk Road runs from Xi'an through Anxi, Kashgar, Samarkand and Seleucia to Tyre at a straight distance of 4200 miles, or about 6000 miles, or a quarter of the equator, if combined with the curving.

2.海上丝绸之路是指古代中国与世界其他地区进行经济文化交流交往的海上通道。2000 多年前，一条以中国徐闻港、合浦港等港口为起点的海上丝绸之路成就了世界性的贸易网络。

Maritime Silk Road refers to ancient China and the rest of the world for economic and cultural exchanges of the sea channel.More than 2000 years ago, a maritime Silk Road, which started with ports such as China's Xuwen Port and Hepu Port, became a worldwide trading network.

3.随着西学大举东来，国内知识分子的大力鼓吹，使得妇女问题开始受到社会的重视。

With the western learning coming to the east in a large scale, the domestic intellectuals advocated vigorously, so that women's issues began to receive social attention.

4.自全球化进程不断加快以来，中国教育已无可避免地成为世界教育的一部分。西学的存在,对我国教育界的认识论和理论体系，带来了什么挑战和启示呢?

Since the accelerating process of globalization, China's education has inevitably become a part of the world's education.What challenges and enlightenment does the existence of western learning bring to the epistemology and theoretical system of education in China?
--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

==Yu Ni 余妮==
1.以“道”解释宇宙万物的演变，即“道生一，一生二，二生三，三生万物”，“道”乃“夫莫之命而常自然”，因而“人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然”。

He used "Tao" to explain the evolution of all things in the universe, that is, "Tao generates one, two, two generates three, three generates all things", "Tao" is "Fu Mo's life is always natural", so "man follows earth, earth follows heaven, heaven follows Tao, Tao follows nature".--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》内容涉及政治、教育、文学、哲学以及立身处世的道理等多方面。早在春秋后期孔子设坛讲学时期，其主体内容就已初始创成;孔子去世以后，他的弟子和再传弟子代代传授他的言论，并逐渐将这些口头记诵的语录言行记录下来。

The content of the Analects of Confucius involves politics, education, literature, philosophy and the truth of life. As early as the late spring and Autumn period when Confucius set up an altar to give lectures, its main content had been initially created; after Confucius died, his disciples and his disciples taught him his words from generation to generation, and gradually recorded these oral quotations, words and deeds.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.慧能的禅法以定慧为本，认为觉性本有，烦恼本无。直接契证觉性，便是顿悟。他说自心既不攀缘善恶，也不可沉空守寂，即须广学多闻，识自本心，达诸佛理。

Huineng's Zen is based on Dinghui. He thinks that consciousness is there and worry is not. The direct evidence of consciousness is epiphany. He said that the self mind should neither climb up to good and evil, nor sink into silence. That is to say, it is necessary to learn a lot, to know the self mind, and to reach all Buddhist principles.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.只有快乐的哲学，才是真正深湛的哲学；西方那些严肃的哲学理论，我想还不曾开始了解人生的真义哩。在我看来，哲学的唯一效用是叫我们对人生抱一种比一般人较轻松较快乐的态度。——林语堂《生活的艺术》

Only the philosophy of happiness is really profound philosophy; I don't think those serious western philosophical theories have begun to understand the true meaning of life. In my opinion, the only effect of philosophy is to make us have a more relaxed and happy attitude towards life than ordinary people. ——The Importance of Living by Lin Yutang--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.天下皆知美之为美，斯恶已；皆知善之为善，斯不善已。
It is because every one under Heaven recognizes beauty as beauty that the idea of ugliness exists. And equally if every one recognized virtue as virtue this would merely create fresh conceptions of wickedness.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.有朋自远方来，不亦说乎？
Is it not delightful to have friends coming from distant quaters?--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。
The Sutra of Huineng mainly recorded life stories and teachings of Huineng. The thoughts in it played an important part in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂在书中谈论了庄子的淡泊，赞扬了陶渊明的闲适。
Ling Yutang talked about Zhuangzi’s indifference to fame and wealth, and spoke highly of Tao Yuanming’s leisure.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

1.张骞出使西域,接触到西域各国的风土人情，是汉朝开始对西域各国有所了解，使汉朝与西域建立了友好关系，为后来西汉政府设置西域都护府，使西域正式归西汉政府管辖打下了基础。

Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Regions brought in contact with the customs of the Western Regions. It was the Han dynasty that began to understand the Western Regions countries, which enabled the Han dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions. Later, the Western Han government set up the Western Regions Protectorate and made the Western Regions officially returned to the Western Han government. Jurisdiction laid the foundation.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Regions brought him into contact with the customs and traditions of the countries in the Western Regions, and enabled the Han Dynasty to establish friendly relations with the Western Regions, which later laid the foundation for the Western Han government to set up the Western Regions Capital Protection Office, making the Western Regions officially under the jurisdiction of the Western Han government.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路自秦汉时期开通以来，一直是沟通东西方经济文化交流的重要桥梁，而东南亚地区自古就是海上丝绸之路的重要枢纽和组成部分。

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han Dynasties, it has always been an important bridge for the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West. Southeast Asia has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the opening of the Maritime Silk Road during the Qin and Han dynasties, it has been an important bridge to bridge the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and the Southeast Asian region has been an important hub and part of the Maritime Silk Road since ancient times.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.西学东渐将西方近代各种学术上的新成果带入了中国，深深影响到各种学术的发展，而许多在传统中国不被重视甚至不存在的学科也在此影响下得到发展。

Western learning has brought various new academic achievements in modern Western modern times into China, deeply affecting the development of various academics, and many disciplines that are not valued or even existed in traditional China have also been developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The gradual expansion of Western learning brought various new achievements in modern Western scholarship into China, which deeply influenced the development of various academic disciplines, and many disciplines that were not valued or even did not exist in traditional China also developed under this influence.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动虽然在客观上刺激中国资本主义发展、并且在一定程度上抵制了外国资本主义的经济输入，但并没有使中国走上富强之路。

Although the Westernization Movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism, and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not make China embark on a path of prosperity.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Although the foreign affairs movement objectively stimulated the development of Chinese capitalism and to a certain extent resisted the economic import of foreign capitalism, it did not put China on the road to wealth and power.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:12, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
1.汉通西域，虽然起初是出于军事目的，但西域开通以后，它的影响，远远超出了军事范围。

Although Zhang Qian's mission to the Western Region was originally for military purposes, after the opening of the Western Region, its influence far exceeded the military scope.

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和"海上香料之路"。

The Maritime Silk Road was a maritime passage for communication, trade and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries in ancient times. It was also called the "Maritime Ceramic Road" and the "Maritime Spice Road".

3.徐光启毕生致力于科学技术的研究，勤奋著述，是介绍和吸收欧洲科学技术的积极推动者，为17世纪中西文化交流作出了重要贡献。

Xu Guangqi devoted his life to the research of science and technology and wrote diligently. He was an active promoter of introducing and absorbing European science and technology, and made important contributions to the cultural exchanges between China and the West in the 17th century.

4.曾国藩治军把选将作为第一要务，他说，“行军之道，择将为先。”他的选将标准是德才兼备，智勇双全，而把德放在首位。

Zeng Guofan regards the election of generals as the first priority. He said, "The wisedom to march is to choose warriors first." His selection criteria is to have both ability and political integrity, wisdom and courage, and morality is the first priority.
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 04:14, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.除了朴素的唯物主义观点，《道德经》一书中还包括大量朴素辩证法观点，如一切事物均具有正反两面。

In addition to the simple materialistic view, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, such as all things have positive and negative sides.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Apart from the simple materialistic views, ''Tao Te Ching'' also includes a large number of simple dialectical views, for example, every coin has two sides.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

''The Analects'' embodies the political ideas, ethical thoughts, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a more concentrated manner.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

''The Analects'' embodies the political views, ethical thoughts, moral ideas and educational principles of Confucius and the Confucianism in a relatively concentrated manner.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。

The Sutra mainly records the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Sutra mainly recorded the life story and teachings of Hui-neng. The thought in ''The Sutra of Hui-neng'' played an important role in the development of Zen Buddhism.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂先生在《生活的艺术》中将中国人旷怀达观、陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调充分传达出来。

In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese way of life of being open-minded and broad-minded, and the romantic and elegant oriental sentiment.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In ''The Importance of Living'', Lin Yutang fully conveys the Chinese lifestyle of open-mindedness and broad-mindedness, and the oriental sentiment of romance and elegance.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:50, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
1.《道德经》是中国历史上最伟大的名著之一，对传统哲学、科学、政治、宗教等产生了深刻影响.

"Tao De Jing" is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics, religion, etc.

"Tao De Jing" is one of the greatest masterpieces in Chinese history, which has had a profound impact on traditional philosophy, science, politics and religion, etc.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》，是孔子弟子及再传弟子记录孔子及其弟子言行而编成的语录文集，较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

"The Analects of Confucius" is a collection of quotations compiled by Confucius and his disciples to record the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, which more concentratedly embodies the political views, ethics, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.

''The Analects of Confucius''is a collection of quotations compiled byConfucius' disciples and their retransmitters to record the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples, which more concentratedly embodies the political views, ethics, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.《坛经》是禅宗的主要经典之一,主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教.

The Tantra is one of the main Zen classics, mainly recording the life deeds and teachings of Huineng.

The ''Tantra'' is one of the main classics of Zen , mainly recording the life deeds and teachings of Huineng.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂的翻译特点是通畅易懂，中等文化的读者都能看懂，这也是他探索的结果。

Lin Yutang's translation features are easy to understand and can be understood by readers of intermediate culture. This is also the result of his exploration.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

Lin Yutang's translation is characterized by its fluency and comprehensiveness, which is also the result of his exploration.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

1.先秦时期，连接中国东西方交流的通道已经存在，丝绸正式西传始于西汉通西域，丝绸之路真正形成始于西汉张骞凿空。

The pre-Qin period, connecting China's East and West exchange channel has existed, the official western transmission of silk began in the Western Han Dynasty through the Western Regions, the Silk Road really formed from the Western Han Dynasty Zhang Qian chiseling.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

In the pre-Qin period, a channel connecting China's east and west already existed. The official spread of silk to the west began in the Western Han Dynasty, and the real formation of the Silk Road began when Zhang Qian's hollowed out in the Western Han Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

2.海上丝绸之路，是古代中国与外国交通贸易和文化交往的海上通道，也称"海上陶瓷之路"和“海上香料之路”，1913年由法国的东方学家沙畹首次提及。

The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the "Maritime Route of Ceramics" and the "Maritime Route of Spices", was first mentioned by the French orientalist Chavannes in 1913, and is a maritime route for traffic, trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China and foreign countries.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Maritime Silk Road was an ancient maritime channel for communication and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. It was also called the "Sea Ceramic Road" and "Sea Spice Road". It was first mentioned in 1913 by the French orientalist Shawan.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

3.明代万历年间，以利玛窦为代表的西书七千部传教士来华传教，同时带来西方科技、文化等。这对中国传统思想文化有所触动。

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, the seven thousand missionaries of the Western Book, represented by Matteo Ricci, came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched the traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, 7,000 missionaries represented by Matteo Ricci came to China to preach, and at the same time brought Western technology and culture. This has touched traditional Chinese thought and culture.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

4.洋务运动，又称自强运动，是19世纪60年代到90年代晚清洋务派所进行的一场引进西方军事装备、机器生产和科学技术以挽救清朝统治的自救运动。

The Foreign Affairs Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-help movement conducted by the Foreign Affairs faction of the late Qing Dynasty from the 1860s to the 1990s to introduce Western military equipment, machinery production and science and technology to save the Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:53, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

The Westernization Movement, also known as the Self-Strengthening Movement, was a self-rescue movement carried out by the Westernization Movement from the 1860s to the late Qing Dynasty that introduced Western military equipment, machine production, and science and technology to save the Qing rule.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1.老子生于春秋战国时期，当时的环境是周朝势微，各诸侯为了争夺霸主地位，战争不断。严酷的动乱与变迁，让老子目睹到民间疾苦，作为周朝的守藏史，于是他提出了治国安民的一系列主张。

Laozi was born in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. At that time, the Zhou Dynasty was in a weak state. As the official historian of Zhou Dynasty, Lao Zi put forward a series of propositions of governing the country and keeping the people safe.

2.作为儒家经典的《论语》，其内容博大精深，包罗万象，《论语》的思想主要有三个既各自独立又紧密相依的范畴：伦理道德范畴——仁，社会政治范畴——礼，认识方法论范畴——中庸。

As a Confucian classic, the Analects of Confucius has a broad and profound content and is all-embracing. The thoughts of the Analects of Confucius mainly consist of three independent and closely related categories: ethical and moral category -- benevolence, social and political category -- rites, and cognitive methodology category -- the doctrine of the mean.

3.慧能偈曰：
菩提本无树，明镜亦非台。
本来无一物，何处惹尘埃？

My stanza read:
There is no Bodhi-tree,
Nor there’s a mirror bright.
Since all is void in fact,
Say, where can dust alight?

4.幽默大师林语堂以人生优游者的独特视角，诠释中国人“生活的艺术”，展现出诗样人生、才情人生、幽默人生、智慧人生的别样风情。

Lin Yutang, a humorist, interprets the "art of life" of The Chinese people from the unique perspective of a good traveler in life, showing a unique style of poetic life, talented life, humorous life and intelligent life.
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

1.《道德经》是中国古代先秦诸子分家前的一部著作，是道家哲学思想的重要来源。

1.The Tao Te Ching is a work before the division of pre-Qin scholars in ancient China, and is an important source of Taoist philosophy.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2.《论语》以语录体为主，叙事体为辅，较为集中地体现了孔子及儒家学派的政治主张、伦理思想、道德观念及教育原则等。

2.The Analects is mainly based on the quotation style, supplemented by the narrative style, which more concentratedly reflects the political propositions, ethics, moral concepts and educational principles of Confucius and Confucianism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

3.经文主要记载慧能的生平事迹和言教。根据“自性本清净”之说，宣扬“明心见性”“顿悟成佛”的基本思想。《坛经》的思想对禅宗发展起到了重要作用。中国佛教著作被尊称为“经”的，仅此一部。

3.The scriptures mainly record the life deeds and teachings of Huineng. According to the theory of "self-nature is pure", it promotes the basic idea of "understanding the mind and seeing the nature" and "understanding to become a Buddha". The idea of "Tan Sutra" played an important role in the development of Zen. This is the only one that is honored as the "Sutra" in Chinese Buddhist works.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

4.林语堂将中国人旷怀达观，陶情遣兴的生活方式和浪漫高雅的东方情调皆诉诸笔下，向西方人娓娓道出了一个可供仿效的完美生活方式的范本、快意人生的典型，展现出诗样人生、才情人生、幽默人生、智慧人生的别样风情。

4Lin Yutang appealed to the Chinese people's open mindedness, Tao Qingqianxing's lifestyle and romantic and elegant oriental sentiment, and he presented a model of perfect lifestyle and a model of happy life that can be imitated to Westerners. Shows the unique style of poetic life, talented life, humorous life, and wise life.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC).

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

《道德经》与中医渊源颇深, 其中许多论点与中医理论有相通之处。

Tao Te Ching is deeply connected with Traditional Chinese medicine, and many of its arguments have something in common with Chinese medicine theories.

《论语》是儒家经典之一，是一部以记言为主的语录体散文集，主要以语录和对话文体的形式记录了孔子及其弟子的言行。

The Analects is one of the classic works of Confucianism. It is a collection of opinion records of prose writings, mainly in the form of quotations and dialogues, recording the words and deeds of Confucius and his disciples.

《坛经》是佛学中国化、大众化最为成功的典型之一。

The Sutra of Hui-neng is one of the most successful representative of sinicization and popularization of Buddhism.

其实,生活于我无意义,快乐地过好每一天最为重要。应该说,这种感受得益于林语堂的《生活的艺术》一书。
In fact, while life is meaningless, what matters to me is leading a happy life everyday. This comprehension should be credited to the The Importance of Living written by Lin Yutang. --[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:34, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
1.《道德经》不仅在中国影响深远而广泛，而且漂洋过海，传遍了世界五大洲，深受外围人的青眯，引起浓厚的学习兴趣和研究热情。他们赞誉《道德经》为“东方智慧的结晶”。当代西方流行广泛的一句话，就是老子是国际性的，目前研究老子思想已成为一种国际性的文化现象。

''The Tao Te Ching'' not only has a far-reaching influence in China, but also has spread all over the five continents of the world. They praised''the Tao te ching'' for the “crystallization of Eastern Wisdom. A popular saying in the west today is that Laozi is international, and the study of Oigo’s thought has become an international cultural phenomenon.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

''Tao Te Ching'' not only has exerted a far-reaching influence in China, but also has spread all over the five continents of the world. They praised''Tao te ching'' for the “crystallization of Eastern Wisdom. A popular saying in the west today is that Laozi is international, and the study of Laozi’s thought has become an international cultural phenomenon.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 04:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

2.作为儒家最经典和最受欢迎的著作，《论语》不仅是中国传统最核心的作品之一，而且是中国人伦理道德标准和行为准则的核心。《论语》中蕴含的儒家思想是中华民族的宝贵财富。自从16世纪末以来，《论语》被中西方学者源源不断地翻译，并且传播到世界各地。

As the most classical and popular works of Confucianism, ''the Analects'' is not only one of the core works of Chinese tradition, but also the core of Chinese ethical standards and codes of conduct. The Confucian thought contained in ''the Analects'' is the precious wealth of the Chinese nation. Since the end of the 16th century, ''the Analects'' has been continuously translated by Chinese and Western scholars and spread all over the world.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.《慧能经》不仅是研究惠能思想的重要资料,而且是具有中国特色的佛教禅宗一派的重要经典,在中国佛教思想史、哲学史上具有深远的影响。

''The Sutra of Huineng'' is not only an important material to study Huineng’s thought, but also an important classic of Zen Buddhism with Chinese characteristics. It has a far-reaching influence on the history of Chinese Buddhist thought and philosophy.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

4.《生活的艺术》是一本与你畅谈如何听风赏月的家常闲聊，又是一本关乎生活态度甚至生活智慧的严肃论文。林语堂从生活、家庭、文化、旅行、思想、宗教等方面探讨人必须学会享受生命。

''The Importance of Living'' is a book about how to feel the wind, enjoy the moon. It is also a serious essay about life attitude and even life wisdom. Lin Yutang analyzed from the aspects of life, family, culture, travel, thought, religion and so on. Then he drew a conclusion that people must learn to enjoy life.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

20201228 trans

2020-12-28T03:59:45Z

Zhang Yinliu: /* Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
'''Zhu Ziqing'''

A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now.
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.

Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.

通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。

据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].

''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''

我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。

''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:

''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.

The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''

A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.

“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”

”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''

Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.

'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''

对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].

我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。

分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].

The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].

2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands.

3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。

2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。

3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:

1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文:

1、异国情调在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]

Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.

2、社会政治在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。

3，个人在香港关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。

在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".

政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020

政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.

非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife.

1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。不同于那个时候，在20世纪90年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事或毛泽东主义对艺术作为意识形态的理解。 20世纪90年代下半页，主讲者本人似乎迷失在个人的主观性以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活的日常亵渎和平庸中。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]

上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”）费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）

Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)

Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.

Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984

Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]

Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167

Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78

Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296

Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181

Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)

Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71

Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148

Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)

==Guo Lu 郭露==
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''

''Martin Woesler''

In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》

''吴漠汀''

在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》

吴漠汀

本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
'''1. The unknown genre'''

The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);

'''1.未知体裁'''

二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.未知体裁'''

20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.

由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.

“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。

对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.

除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays.

这一点可以从郑那里得到证明，他把“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信”分门别类。在西方语境中，这些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有当它们被改成散文(郑:“日记体散文”和“书信体散文”)后，它们才被接受为散文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:07, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''

在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。

更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''

Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).

20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

'''二十世纪八九十年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展'''

相关分析表明，1979年后散文出版量普遍增加，在文化大革命后达到了两次顶峰。1990年，散文出版量明显再创新高。散文出版量的第一次增长出现在二十世纪二三十年代。随后，报告文学的出现使得散文黯然失色(Klaschka 1998.)二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版量之所以猛然增长，部分原因在于作为当代散文家写作阵地的新杂志和众多散文丛书的出现。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:48, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.

Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.

文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。

感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''

Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:

- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.

为什么论文像小说一样丰富？

让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：

-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响，并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

为什么散文像小说一样丰富？

让我举几个理由，为什么这篇文章实际上和它的散文兄弟、小说和它的抒情妹妹、诗歌一样丰富，为什么它必须被高度重视：

这篇文章对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四时期的改革思想，以鲁迅的文学理论和日常政治面貌，直到今天，大多以散文的形式呈现）。对文学反思和理论的影响见1996年《中国现代文学思想集。散文体裁与其直接语言的影响，它与生活的联系(例如。它在接受文化革命方面的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触个人读者。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。这首诗是从社会生活、政治问题和时间参考中退缩的体裁。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:49, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.

- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。

- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。

-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.

- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。

3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.

在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。

关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。

然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.
==Li Yu 李玉==
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''

I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.

We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century.
==Lin Min 林敏==
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.
==Lin Xin 林鑫==
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.

'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''

How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.

下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。

5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.

From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.
==Liu Bo 刘博==
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.

In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.

“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.

In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''.
==Liu Liu 刘柳==
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.

During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。

历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。

历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.

Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.

边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。

考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.

Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).

目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。

前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).

Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。

理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.

'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''

To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911).

梁启超研究出了一种新文体，这种文体受西方的语言所影响。但是这篇散文在报纸成为大众媒体之后才开始流行开来，成为所说的“白话”。

6.散文作为现代化的媒介，质疑了中国散文的真实性。
首先要解决的问题就是中国散文是源自本土传统还是西方翻译，有人认为两者都有所相关:散文意外地以中文译文的形式受引入到1907年的文学改革运动作家群体中来。(林纾:欧文，1907，爱迪森，1911)--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).

This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:

以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).

例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，鲁迅的“展开”说与“萌芽”论认为晋代散文的攻击性与批判性是中国散文的先祖。周作人则将英语散文视为明朝“笔记”的先祖，在公安派英国小品“合成”论中，他努力使英文散文与他的理论合成一体。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有重新开始，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:29, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

王曾祺遗憾的是，“五四”时期的中国民族散文传统没有被拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续(王曾祺1993)。中国的文章是一个很好的研究对象，因为人们可以指望它来证明文章的所有理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到每个主题的例子，这仅仅是因为这篇文章的主题范围很广。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:09, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.

The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.

I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.

除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.

20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。

考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。

一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
'''Zhou Zuoren'''

I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.

我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视。原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。周作人是五四理论天才的“堕落”，后来成为“叛徒”。在日本赞助的《回忆》、《中国文学》等杂志上发表，他与朱璞、袁熙的合作受到指责。一个没有回答的问题是为什么另一位在那里发表文章的作者张爱玲从来没有受到过合作者的指责。两者的区别在于张爱玲试图避免政治承诺，而周作人感到内疚，朱璞证明了这一点，袁熙简单地接受了这一点。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 03:44, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''

''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).

In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".

In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.

“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。

为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181).
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.

"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."
==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8).

Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.

见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.

参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).
==Sagara Seydou ==
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'.

On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.

因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.

因此，不是日本侵略者造成了这位伟大作家的退缩，而是他的中国同胞们。由于背负着“叛徒”的污名，他一直未受到重视。20世纪90年代，他的作品出版频繁，几乎与鲁迅和朱自清等同，这表明这些作品在读者中收到了更为积极的评价，这一点也获得了当代学者的认可。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:47, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things.
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.

His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food.

Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.

''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）

官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.

他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.

'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''

==Su Lin 苏琳==
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994).
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).

From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii);

- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。

- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。

- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。

- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；

-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；

-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.

- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.
==Tang Ming 唐铭==
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers").

- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.

- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).

- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''

- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).
==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''".
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。

- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。

Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）

''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）

And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）

==Wang Yu 王煜==
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''

Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.

- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?

==Wang Yuan 王源==
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?

- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?

- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录

'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）

吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
'''Abstract'''

In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.

Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide.

摘要

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）

在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。

曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.

红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage

“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）

多元一体

'''Key words'''

Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''

To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.

When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.

However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
'''2. Compatibility
'''
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?

First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.

'''2. 兼容性
'''
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？

首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.

'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''

There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.

然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。

'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''

《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.

'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''

According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.
==Wu Xiang 邬香==
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist).

小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。

The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.

《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.

'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''

Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.

此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。

“5. 成熟和异化”

抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.

然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).

德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''.

'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''

Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively.

According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.

The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).

In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”

Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。

"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。

在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”

情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Xu Jing 许晶==
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.

While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.

《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。

玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).

在歌德的成长小说''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre''中，我们发现了类似的女性竞争主题，在凯勒''The Green Henry''（《绿衣亨利》1855）中，男主人公父亲早亡，母亲养育其成人。在简-奥斯汀的''Pride and Prejudice''（《傲慢与偏见》1813）中，伊丽莎白和林黛玉是相似的，比如她们都追求真爱（庄2011）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:38, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''

A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.

封建社会和奴隶
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.

另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”，所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''

Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.

8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分

亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture.

In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.

尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。

在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.

它作为一场解放运动在18世纪的伦敦、巴黎和德国发展起来，并证明了悲剧并非只发生在统治者身上，也可能发生在下层贵族和普通公民身上。《梦》与欧洲资产阶级悲剧同时上演，讲述的是一个中层贵族家庭失去头衔和特权的悲剧故事。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:31, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''

One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.

9. “非二进制小说”

可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

“非二元”小说

一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically.

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''

Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

10.红楼梦中的异邦文化

红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并是以新奇的形式呈现给贾府的，尤其是其中提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，有一次是以带翅膀的天使的形象出现。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 03:36, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Jia 姚佳==
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”.

'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）

Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.

Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.

Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition

Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289

Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107

Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object
'''

A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University

'''Abstract'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

机器之间以人为对象的虚拟通信

口头，书面，印刷，电子和人机交流之后的多模式交流进入新阶段

湖南师范大学马丁·沃斯勒

摘要

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头交流（媒体时代1.0）到脚本（2.0），从印刷品（3.0）到数字通信（4.0）的发展。在所有这些阶段中，技术仅起到辅助作用。
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:33, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==You Yuting 游雨婷==
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。

算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society.

这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

----

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.

虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.

研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.

'''Introduction'''

In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。

引言

本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。

引言

在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”

The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”

当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting

“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”

当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.

这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''

Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role.

This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).

卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。

本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).

虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.

The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.

但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。

交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。

传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.

机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.

'''2 Types of communicative acts'''

1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)

2.Surf behavior (websites visited)

3.Consumer behavior (purchases)

4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)

5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)

6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。

"两种类型的交际行为"

1.
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)

2.
上网行为(浏览网站)

3.
消费者行为(购买)

4.
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)

5.
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)

6.
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)

8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships

9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)

7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）

8.社交互动，包括友谊，性关系

9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
'''3 Types of analysis'''

1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)

2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)

3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)

4.Mobility profile/pattern

'''3种分析类型'''

1.概况（用户和实体行为分析:AI辅助的网络安全工具，如美国Gartner公司提供的）

2.真实身份（例如:鼠标移动，人脸识别，查找真实姓名）（Verschuere，2016）

3.个人简介:五大人格清单:开放体验，意识，外向，宜人，神经质海洋（Golbeck，2011），仅通过分析用户的喜好，脸书就可以生成个人简历（AI-Demand，2020）

4..流动概况/模式

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)

6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)

6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.

8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)

9.Secrets (like adultery)

7.财务信誉度：例如,德国Schufa公司除使用人类专业知识外还使用AI进行评估,请参阅Banken科技2020。新闻中讨论了Schufa尝试访问客户的银行帐户转账信息的尝试。

8，消费者行为：例如在微软的帮助下，``clickworker''公司根据客户公司的目标/产品分析并优化了客户的搜索（clickworker 2019）

9，秘密（如通奸）--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:59, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]

1.the human switches from active to passive

2.the human switches from subject to object

3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)

4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet

5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance

4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]

1.人从主动到被动的转换

2.人从主体到客体的转换

3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险

4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换

5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)

7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))

8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine

9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration

6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。

7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。

8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。

9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.

'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)
'''

1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions

2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments

到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。

'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''

1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策

2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).

4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation

5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)

6.Identity theft

3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。

4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举（这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜

5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）

6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
'''6 Consequences'''

1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)

6.后果

1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

6.后果

1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

'''6.后果
'''

1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery)

3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)

4.Populists and populist views gain supporters

5.Polarization of Society

6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.

7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words

2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）

3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会的两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。

7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）

3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）

4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者

5.社会两极分化

6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。

7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)

9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics
'''
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''

1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted

2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模拟迫近的未来
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机
'''
7模8拟即将到来的未来
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019).

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''

Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.

'''8 结论与展望'''

数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。

尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.

'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.
'''
'''
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms:
'''
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。

'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''

所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.
'''

AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.

人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。

人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more?

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==
'''9 Outlook'''

We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.

'''9展望'''

我们必须承认，发展是不可逆转的。每一项新技术都在某种程度上引发了恐慌。然后重要的事情是，我们开始意识到，并调整那些朝错误方向进行的发展。我们需要制定正确的构架和激励措施，让新技术继续稳定地为人类服务。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:06, 28 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.

'''References
'''
（参考文献不用翻译）

AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/

Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007

Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/

Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.

Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/

Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453

Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare

Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf:

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true

Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.

Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.

Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997

Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.

https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf

Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.

Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.

Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.

Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.

Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.

Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
'''Bio'''

Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.

个人简历

自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.

20201215 cultexam 4

2020-12-21T03:23:55Z

Zhang Yinliu: /* Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 202070080649 英语口译 */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮英语笔译 202070080620==

===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"

===Zhaozhou Bridge===
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）

In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）

===Luoyang Bridge===
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)

The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)

It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)

There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)

===Lugou Bridge===
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）

The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）

As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）

===Guangji Bridge===
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)

Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)

There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)

The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)

The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)

Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)

===References===
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.

Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.

Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.

Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.

===Terms and expressions===

石拱桥 stone arch bridge

望柱 baluster

桥基 settlement

泄洪 flood discharging

桥墩 pier

抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block

华表Chinese totem pillar

栏杆 balustrade

燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin

启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge

===Questions===

1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?

2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?

3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?

4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?
===Answers===
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.

2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.

3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.

4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:09, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

====Milk Tea====

We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!

Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====

Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.

Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====B.The Development of Milk Tea====

Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.

Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.

In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====

====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====

When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.

When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====

The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)

The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.Indian Masala Chai====

Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）

Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====C.Milk Tea and Health====

====1.Advantages====

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.

Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.Disadvantages====

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====References====

1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15

2.《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食

3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》

4.茶颜悦色密码（2020）国企管理,(20)68.

====Terms and Expressions====

Milk tea 奶茶

Spice 香辛料

Rudiment 雏形

Sexytea 茶颜悦色

Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁

Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶

Cholesterol 胆固醇

Hyperglycemia 高血糖

Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原

Maple sugar 枫糖

Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶

Internet celebrity city网红城市

Pecans 碧根果

Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶

Hyperlipidemia 高血脂

Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病

Gastrointestinal 肠胃的

====Questions====

1.What is the origin of milk tea?

Mongolia Milk Tea.

2.Who promoted milk tea?

British colonists.

3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?

Britain.

4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?

Sexytea.

5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?

No.

6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.

7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良- MTI 英语笔译-202070080578==

===Introduction===

Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)

In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)

The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)

There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)

The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges.(Chen Kang 2006,62)

The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three floors hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)

Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)

During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''. This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)

Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)

There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)

Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)

===Terms and Expressions===

Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden 清明上河园

''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' 《清明上河图》

Rainbow Bridge 虹桥

Fuyun Pavillion 浮云阁

Shangshan Gate 上善门

chrysanthemum 菊花

Baogong Salute to Guests 包公迎宾

Spitting Fire Show 气功喷火

Cockfight 斗鸡

Women’s Polo 女子马球

Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty 大宋·东京梦华

===Questions===

1. What is the location of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden?

2. What’s the role of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden in China?

3. When was Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden opened to the public?

4. Who is the painter of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?

5. Which dynasty of the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' present?

6. What does the name of "Fuyun Pavilion" mean?

7. What’s the characteristics of the performance of "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

8. Can you please list some kinds of performance of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden besides "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

===Answers===

1. It is located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province.

2. In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base.

3. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.

4. Zhang Zeduan.

5. Northern Song Dynasty.

6. The name of "Fuyun" has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.

7. It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.

8. Baogong Salute to Guests, Spitting Fire Show, Cockfight, Women’s Polo.

===References===

Chen Kang 陈康. (2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].''集邮博览'' Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.

Gao Jing 高静. (2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty]. ''光彩''Brilliance(04)16-19.

Li Mei 李梅. (2007). 清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development]. ''合作经济与科技'' Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.

Pang Runxin 庞润昕. (2019). 《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival]. ''景德镇陶瓷大学''Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.

Wei Tuo 韦陀. (2006). 张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan]. ''紫禁城'' Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.

Zhang Lu 张璐. (2013). 清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of "Qingming River" Song Dynasty Theme Park]. ''赤峰学院学报'' Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.
--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Batik, Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛202070080579 MTI英语笔译==
===Batik(Lanran)===

Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

===History===

According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.(Liu Haili, 1986,1)

Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. (Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik, Cao Saina, 2020,5）

Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.

===Types===

Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region. （Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

===Technical Process===

Preparation

Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate. （Liao Li, 2012）

Applying wax

Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife.
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dip-dyeing

Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dewaxing

After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（Liao Li, 2012）

===Materials ===

The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.(Liao Li, 2012)

In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.(Liao Li, 2012)

In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （Liao Li, 2012）

===Patterns===

From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns.
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.（Li Xing, 2020,3)

Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value.

Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(Liao Li, 2012）

===Terms and Expressions===

batik 蜡染

laxie 蜡缬

huixie 灰缬

jiaoxie 绞缬

jiaxie 夹缬

Eryi Records 《二仪实录》

The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》

The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》

single-color dyeing 单色染

multi-color dyeing 复色染

Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院

Polygonum 蓼蓝

Polygonaceae蓼科植物

Isatis tinctoria 松蓝

Cruciferae 十字花科

anil 木蓝属植物

leguminous豆科

safflower红花

madder茜草

yellow gardenia黄色栀子

turmeric姜黄

Rhamnus utility冻绿

===Questions and Answers===

1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?

Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.

2. When did batik appear and become popular?

Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.

3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?

Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.

4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.

5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?

Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.

6. How does “ice patterns” appear?

When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".

7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?

Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.

===References===

Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik 百度百科—蜡染 https://baike.baidu.com/item/蜡染/306637?fr=aladdin

Liao Li, 廖利 Batik Art《蜡染艺术》世界大学城 www.worlduc.com

Cao Saina曹赛娜. The Evolution Trend of Chinese Batik and Its Local Activation Method 中国蜡染演化趋势与本土活化方式浅探 China Art College 中国美术学院,2010:5

Li Xing, 李欣. Development and Cultural Connotations of Batik in Guizhou 贵州蜡染发展源流及文化内涵 . Memoir of the first academic seminar of the Education Modernization Professional Committee of the Guangdong Education Society in 2020 广东教育学会教育现代化专业委员会2020年第一次学术研讨会论文集 2020:3.

Liu Haili刘海粟. The History, Current Situation and Development of Batik in Guizhou贵州蜡染的历史、现状及其发展. 贵州师范大学学报(社会科学版),1986,(01):1-6.

==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).Quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Short weapons

The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords.

Long Weapons

The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.

Historical Origins

Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.Quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.

During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.

The meteor hammer

The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.

Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.

Rope Dart

The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.

The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).

Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.

Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.

A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.

These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.

It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!

===B.Terms and Expressions===
greataxe 钺

trident 叉

dagger halberd 戟

spiked mace 殳

soft whip 软鞭

bar mace 锏

dagger axe 戈

rope dart 绳镖
===C.Questions===
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?

Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.

2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?

Answer: The Stone Age weapons.

3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?

Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.

4. How to use a meteor hammer?

Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

1.百度百科

2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.

3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.

4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

[1].百度百科

[2].沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.

[3]."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.

[4].Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲英语笔译 202070080623==

===Terracotta Army===

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑

chariot n. 战车

mausoleum n. 陵墓

Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇

Pit 1 一号坑

Pit 2 二号坑

Pit 3 三号坑

kiln n. 窑

Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹

World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》

===Questions===

1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?

2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?

3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?

4. How the terracotta warriors were made?

5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?

6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?

===Answers===

1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.

2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.

3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future.

4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.

5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

===References===

1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors.

2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.

3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.

4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
'''Penjing'''

Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''A.Categories'''

Penjing generally fall into one of three categories:

Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）

Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''B.History'''

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''C.Techniques and Care'''

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''D. In Other Culture'''

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
*miniature小型的，缩小的
*trimming 修剪
*pruning 剪枝
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代
*pomegranate 石榴
*literali 文人
*clamping 折枝成型

===Question===
*Have you ever raise any plants?
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?

===Answers===
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.
*The Han Dynasty
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.

===References===
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类

[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管

[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋

[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==

===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===

====A. Overview of Douyin and Tik Tok ====
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)

In September 2017, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was launched. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and the content is not shared between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.

What’s more, the mode of both Douyin and Tik Tok is similar. According to Liang’s description of Douyin,“The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second stories.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. (Tian Fengchang, 2020: 15-17) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.

Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spending most of their spare time on the For You Page. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

====B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram ====
As what was mentioned before, Tik Tok or Douyin is somehow similar to Instagram. Despite their alike fundamentals, they have their own distinctive features. Differences between them are as follows:

1. Time limit: Tik Tok currently does not support a long-form video. While IGTV, Instagram’s long-form video feature, allows a video length of up to one hour. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

2. Users: Most Tik Tok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most Tik Tok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)

3. Community: Compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. It allows users to easily connect, build friendships, and collab with each other. Besides, something new and trendy is pushed to the users every week, so as to further increase its attention. Therefore, some creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

====C. Popularity and Effects ====
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Several reasons why Tik Tok is so popular include:

1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy from China, Jimmy Fallon from American, have helped drive Tik Tok's popularity. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

There is no doubt that Tik Tok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a Tik Tok or doing one of the Tik Tok dances. (Wang Ning, 2019: 15-16) Here are some benefits of Tik Tok:

1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of Tik Tok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, Tik Tok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

2. Publicity: With Tik Tok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.

3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on Tik Tok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from Tik Tok. As an engaging platform, Tik Tok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Chinese Red Cross Foundation or intern for companies. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. there are as follows:

1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making users hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later only to find have lost an entire day. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people criticize other people’s videos, while others create videos for deriding someone. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved, thus resulting in life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues. (Tian Xiaofang, 2019)

[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]

===Terms and Expressions===
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音

ByteDance 字节跳动

Short video platforms 短视频平台

Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法

Celebrity endorsements 名人代言

Chinese Red Cross Foundation 中国红十字基金会

Mental health 心理健康

===Questions and Answers===
Q1. What is Tik Tok？

Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?

Q3. Why Tik Tok is so popular around the world?

Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?

Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok?

A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic.

A2: They are two different versions that can be downloaded in different regions -- Douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.

A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing.

A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. Additionally, People can learn new things.

A5: Many worried that Tik Tok is addictive, bad for mental health, and unsafe.

===References===
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019

* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018

* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.

* Tian Fengchang, Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based on Tik Tok][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.

* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.

* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020

* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.

* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.

* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].

* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 202070080649 英语口译==

===Four Buddhist Shrines===

Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity,which ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated and achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)

===Mount Wutai===

Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. It is the ashram of Manjusri Bodhisattva who is the god of wisdom in China. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）

===Mount Putuo===

Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）

===Mount Emei===

Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva who is the god of practice in China. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Just the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(Gan Shude,1998）

===Mount Jiuhua===

Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha who is the god of willingness and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. It was initially named Mount Jiuzi and was latter renamed to Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Li Bai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）

===Terms and Expressions===

Buddhist adj.佛教的

Buddhism n.佛教

shrine n.圣地

pullulate v.大量产生

Gold Wutai 金五台

Silver Putuo 银普陀

Copper Emei 铜峨眉

Iron Jiuhua 铁九华

Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨

Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨

Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨

Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨

reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身

ashram n. 修行的住所

Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼

Sarnath n. 鹿野苑

Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶

Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗

Wanghai Peak 望海峰

Yedou Peak 叶斗峰

Guayue Peak 挂月峰

Splendid Peak 锦绣峰

Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰

Xiantong Temple 显通寺

Nanchan Temple 南禅寺

Foguang Temple 佛光寺

The Great White Tower 大白塔

Puji Temple 普济寺

Fayu Temple 法雨寺

Huiji Temple 惠济寺

The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林

Wannian Temple 万年寺

Baoguo Temple 报国寺

Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺

Golden Summit 金顶

Huacheng Temple 化城寺

Tiantai Temple 天台寺

Longevity Palace 百岁宫

Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺

nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Li Bai

妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白

===Questions===

1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?

2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?

3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectively?

4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?

5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet [[Li Bai]]?--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.

2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.

3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.

4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.

5. Mount Putuo.

6. Mount Jiuhua.

===References===

1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.

2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.

3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.

4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html

5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.

--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:05, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==
===Compass===
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as one of the advanced scientific technologies in ancient China, has made great contributions to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity, use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94).

The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)

In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decrease in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)

In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)

Compass, as a tool for guiding the direction, has played an important role in people's daily life and in the navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It is recorded that Qin emperor used a diving board and compass in his royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass led people to believe that the square plate symbolized the earth and the round disc symbolized the heaven. And around the round disc, there engraved the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 constellations (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a superstition, the compass was endowed with the wishful thinking of the people. Nowadays many people still use the concept of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremonies. (China Week 2003,35)

Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass has played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)

The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until the 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)

[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]

===References===
*"FOUR Great Inventions" [四大发明]. ''China's Foreign Trade'' [《中国外贸》].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012).
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China" [指南针——中国四大发明之一]. ''China Week'' [《中华周刊》]. China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003).
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》 [''Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine'']. 武汉：武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan University Press].1995.

===Terms and Expressions===
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子
*lodestone 天然磁石
*south-governor 司南
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮
*Ding Du 丁度
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘
*dry compass 旱罗盘
*Eight Trigrams 八卦
*gimbal 常平架

===Questions===
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature?
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear?
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass?
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass?
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?

===Answers===
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.
*In the Warring States Period.
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==

''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.

===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.

Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his house. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he put many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''
--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. Contents and Themes===
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types:

One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.

In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.

The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types:

One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.

Pu Songling himeself suffered from his repeated failure in the imperial examination. In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. A Typical Story===
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.

Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan Province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Features of the Book===
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.

4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning.

4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

teahouse 茶馆

scholarly family书香世家

imperial examination 科举制度

underworld 阴曹地府

fox spirit 狐妖

salt merchant 盐商

forgetting to be alien 忘为异类

===Questions===

1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?

2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?

3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?

4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.

5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?

6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?

===Answers===
1. Nearly 500.

2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.

3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.

4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.

5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.

6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.

Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

===References===

==Four Main Philosophic Schools-张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 MTI 英语口译==

===Confucianism===

In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and tried to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.

Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatening the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”).

However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaws in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.

In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation could survive whatever disaster it encountered as well. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.

===Taoism or Daoism===

Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on the development of Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively.

First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts (百家争鸣)”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55).

However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor selected Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.

===Legalism===

Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law at its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.

Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishments according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.

===Mohism===

Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the latter contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.

During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.

1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.

2. 陈建华. 孔孟之间的儒家人性世界[J]. 兰州学刊, 2020(B82).

3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.

4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.

5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.

6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.

7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.

8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.

9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.

10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.

11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.

12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.

13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.

14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.

--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==

====A. Writing Brush====

Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)

Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)

In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)

Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

====B. Terms and Expressions====

笔锋 the tip of a wring brush

笔杆 pen-holder

宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush

羊毫笔 goat-hair brush

鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush

====C. Questions====

1. What are the four treasures of the study?

2. How long is the history of writing brush?

3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?

4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?

===Answers===

1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.

2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.

3. In the Warring States periods.

4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.

===References===

*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.

*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.

*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.

*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.

==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==

===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===

===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.(Paragraph is too long)--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.

===The Legendary of Nian===

According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.(paragraph is too long)

===Terms and Expressions===

Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海

Yandi 炎帝

Shanhaijing 山海经

Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山

Nüwa 女娃

Eastern Sea 东海

the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟

Zhang River 漳水

The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水

Emperor Yao 尧帝

Nian 年

new year 新年

===Questions===
1.Who is Nüwa?

She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.

2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?

The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.

3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?

Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.
===References===

[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.

[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.

[3]百度百科

[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian.

[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review.

[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168.

--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

==Face Changing in Sichuan Opera - Zhou Yiwen 周艺文 202070080629 英语笔译==

===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===

1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics

Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)

2.The origin and development of face changing

Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)

Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)

It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)

3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu

The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people's perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

4.Crafting materials for facial makeup

As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)

5.Three main types of Lianpu

There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)

===Terms and Expressions===

Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧

Face changing n.变脸

Lian pu 脸谱

Guan Yu 关羽

Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》

Liu Bei 刘备

Cao Cao 曹操

Qin Hui 秦桧

Yan Song 严嵩

Sima Yi 司马懿

Bao Zhenhg 包拯

Li Kui 李逵

Zhang Fei 张飞

Dian Wei 典韦

Pang Juan 庞涓

Xu Shiying 徐世英

Dou Erdun 窦尔敦

Cheng Yaojin 程咬金

Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜

Sun Wukong, 孙悟空

Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王

Peng Denghuai 彭登怀

Andy Lau 刘德华

Wiping Mask 抹脸

Blowing Mask 吹脸

Pulling Mask 扯脸

===Questions===
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?

2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?

3.How long is the history of face changing?

4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?

5.What are the three types of face changes?

===Answers===

1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).

2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.

3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).

4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.

5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.

===References===

Luo Yue 罗玥. (2019). 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术 [On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''戏剧之家'' Home Drama13:29-30.

Wang Huaqing 王华清. (2017). 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征 [Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''设计'' Design

Xiao Yuanjin 萧源锦. (2013). 神奇莫测的川剧变脸 [Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera]. ''文史杂志'' Journal of Literature and History 2: 54-55.

百度百科Baidu Baike

https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml

https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==

===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System.

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:

1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers.

2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates' talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn't have the power of appointment.

3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Nine-Grade Official Selection System, image from Baike. Click [https://baike.baidu.com/pic/%E4%B9%9D%E5%93%81%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%B6/1711003/1/77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f?fr=lemma&ct=single#aid=1&pic=77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f.jpg] for original source.]]

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Terms and Expressions===

Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制

Recommendatory System 察举制

Rectifier 中正官

Senior Rectifier 大中正官

Junior Rectifier 小中正官

Region 州

Commandery 郡

superior-superior 上上

superior-intermediary 上中

superior-inferior 上下

intermediary-superior 中上

intermediary-intermediary 中中

intermediary-inferior 中下

inferior-superior 下上

inferior-intermediary 下中

and inferior-inferior 下下

Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书

Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》

===Questions===

1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

2. What does a Rectifier do?

3. What are the nine ranks?

4. What's the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

===Answers===

1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.

2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.

3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.

4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

===References===

1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.

2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.

3. Deng Zhongping 邓中平. (2010). 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示 [Analysis of ancient Chinese system for selecting officers and enlightenment].西南政法大学 Southwest University of Political Science and Law.

==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632 Major: MTI ==

===Introduction===

From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)

From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)

Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]

The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)

The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]

In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)

In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===

[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]

This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）

This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Swastika lattice===

[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]

Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.

This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Fret lattice===

[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]

Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)

Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The cracked ice lattice===

[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]

The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)

The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The H-shaped Lattice===

[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]

The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)

The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The well-shaped lattice===

[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]

The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)

"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Vocabulary List===

lattice 格心

diamond lattice 菱花

the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花

the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花

a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花

swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花

fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花

the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花

the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花

===Questions===

1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows?

2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples?

3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice?

===Answers===

1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight.

2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples.

3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.

===Reference===

*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.

*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.

*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.

*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.

*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press

*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts

* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review.

* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.

==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 202070080631 MTI==

===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===

As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)

The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system. Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription.(Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020, 18)

Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011, 179)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]

Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012, 409)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]

There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays. Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020, 62)

Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.(Wang Yi, 2019, 106)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.

Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.

Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.

Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).

Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.

Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.

Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411.

Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).

Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy

===Terms and Expressions===
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间

Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗

xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗

Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派

Donglin School 东林党

Zhu Xi 朱熹

Zhou Shi 周式

Zhang Shi 张栻

Qiandao Reign 乾道年间

Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛

Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁

Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭

Yushu Library 御书楼

Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁

Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂

Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂

the Banxue Building 半学斋

the Hexi Platform 赫曦台

===Questions===
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?

2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?

3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?

4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?

5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?

6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?

===Answers===
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).

2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.

3.The Lecture Hall.

4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony.

5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning.

6.It held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.

--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==

===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===

[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55).
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835).
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22).
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.

Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.

*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.

*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.

*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.

*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.

*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.

*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.

*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.

*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.

===Terms and Expressions===
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"

|-

|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱

|-

|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期

|-

|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺

|-

|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树

|-

|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田

|-

|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年

|-

|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子

|}

===Questions===

1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?

2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?

3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?

4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?

5.What achievements did jiaozi make?

6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?

===Answers===
1.Jiaozi.

2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.

3.Merchants.

4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).

5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.

6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.

--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003 - Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===

Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]

[[File: makeup.jpg]]

Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.

It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.

In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.

From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]

Pale skin was and still is a sign of aristocracy in the East. Women literally put white on their face, their skin had to be snow-white, so they often went under umbrellas so as not to tan.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====I.Base make up====

1.Lead powder

In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

2.Rice powder

In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.

“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

====II.Color make up====

If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

1.Blush

Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).Blush in ancient China was bright and rich (this contrasted with white skin), which showed the Almighty that they were healthy and happy.

Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.

[[File: blush.jpg]]

2.Lipsctick

Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.

[[File: lipstick.jpg]]

3.Eyebrows

It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.Eyebrows are a separate and one of the favorite parts of makeup. They had to be clear and black. The women shaved off their eyebrows and then dyed the eyebrows in a thin arc or made them straight. It was customary for warriors to dye their eyebrows in such a way as to give the image a more severe look.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.

In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.

[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]

====III.Tang dynasty make up====

[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]

1.Early Tang Dynasty

The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.

In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.

*White make up

Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

*Red make up

In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.

As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty

After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.

For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.

3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty

After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.

In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.

However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.

The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.

4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times

Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.

Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.

====References====

*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

====Terms and Expressions====

*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.

*胭脂 - rouge

*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick

*黛 - black eyebrow dye

====Questions====

1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?

2.Why is lead powder dangerous?

3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?

4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?

5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?

6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?

====Answers====

1.Rice powder.

2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.

3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.

5.White make up and Red make up.

6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.

20201221 trans

2020-12-21T03:20:09Z

Zhang Yinliu: /* Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 */

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung).

Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.

在言语艺术中辨别出的音调会反映出人民与国家关系的情绪，这一观点通过中国文艺哲学频繁出现，并且频繁进入现代政治的世界，关于中国现代民俗运动的工作将证明这一点。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.

在过去的二十年中，“语调”这个词（特别是调）具有负面含义，至少部分是因为其在政治文学斗争中的作用。即使编辑赞同“新调”的重要性，也将两者拉开距离。（杨，朱）。在类似的策略中，当代杂文以一种隐蔽的形式创作的，比起“呸呸呸”类的文章，更像“东站”类的文章吗？这明显地揭示了演说式的情感修辞。与20世纪80年代后期相比，近些年的杂文隐退在其他类型文章中。这种在杂文历史的背景中是非常熟悉的一种策略；隐藏的必要性只会增加“无意识地”不和谐的语调，它会被控制，又咬又踢，反映事实。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 13:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.

杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Chen Hui 陈惠==
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays.
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。

胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text.
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.

文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing

文章中的语调是讽刺的手法；你如何传达纸上的笔墨所承载的声音。本文中我尝试通过“浑厚的”作品解释语调的修辞，尤其是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位公认的诗人，退休后，他将诗歌分解成辩论文章，即他的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，这种区分和杂文处于受到社会和文化围困的空间揭示了中国文章语调的技巧、思想和意义。比起其他文学类型，杂文更依赖于喜怒无常的朴实的声音和固执的声音来传达信息。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Sha 陈莎==
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.

虽然读者讨厌当下具有道德挑衅性和政治挑衅性的杂文，但作家们却将这些跨越时间和出版机构的杂文串联起来以构建大量互文性的对话。最终，他们甚至保存了这些杂文，并在这些令人眼花缭乱的典故、笑话和挖苦被人遗忘很久之后，将这些具有职业价值的杂文汇编成小册，送给朋友和仰慕者，作为他们自己的散漫画像。因此，鲁迅像“匕首和矛”一样的文风不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的文化自我雕塑，而这一雕塑是通过有争议且刺耳的社会对话凿刻出来。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 01:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''

'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''

A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.

附录：两大文本的翻译：《呸呸呸！？》和《东站》

《呸呸呸！？》

文坛外的一个朋友让我帮他找些关于“呸呸呸”的文章看。我呆呆地望着他，一言不发。接着，他解释说他在报纸上看到某地领导人举行了一场宴会，宴会上绝不能出现“呸呸呸”这样的话。可显而易见，当时的宴会上到处都是“呸呸呸”的声音。

是我太迟钝了吗？我有点怀疑，又有点好奇，于是就想弄清楚这件事。结果确实是人们在哪都不能说“呸呸呸”。这绝不能成为一种过去常用来描述党派、国家和人们，并散布消极情绪的嘲弄、讥讽和鄙视性话语。就好像到处都能看到问题有多普遍，有多严重，并不限于某个特定的时间和某个特定的地方。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Cheng Yusi 成于思==
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place.

I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.

读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是按照约定俗成的惯例），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，更不用说天津和河北一带。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

读者手握对报纸的最大批判权。我很好奇到底有多少读者发现某地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”文章。

作为一名读者，我订阅了几种大型报纸（那时报纸规模不分大小，可我却依然保留着这一习惯）此外，别人也寄些报纸给我看。我既没有闲情也没有闲钱在北京买小报看，更别说在天津河北哪些地方了。即便如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。一个人只能看到有限的内容。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。一个人能看到内容有限。我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。人们总是认为如果“纪律和纠正”越多，“新挑战和新问题”也就越多，那为什么所有人还要去做“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我搞不懂“稳定人们的思想”具体指什么，我也看不到任何具体要求。所以，我需要指导。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社

文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

'''East Station'''

Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.

'''东站'''

在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station.

This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?

曾经，这个火车站象征着热闹繁华，也象征着赶火车的紧迫，无论是在白天还是黑夜，火车站里都是人来人往，有来自不同国家的旅客来到这座古都，也有旅客离开。到过北京的外地人，也许没有在香山漫步过，甚至没有参观过故宫博物院，但没有人会不记得这个火车站。

这个火车站，和北京其他地方一样，经历了一切，见证了繁荣和衰败的循环。它既欢迎自愿来北京的旅客，也欢迎被迫来北京的旅客，它欢迎有权有势的人，也欢迎那些它不欢迎的人。它送走了第一次来旅行的快乐的人，也送走了那些离去时伤心欲绝的人；他们中有多少人离开了这里，再也没有回来过？--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 14:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol?

当20岁的沈从文从湖南凤凰绕道来到北京时，他可能走出车站，在车站前的广场站了一会儿。他一定会看到，先是统一排列的建筑，还有正阳塔的彩雕大门,因为在那些年，前面还有一个空间。他的感官会被这深邃而庄严的美感所震撼。他是否会想到，康（有为）和梁（七巧）在踏上逃亡的列车时，在匆忙中连回望心爱的都城的翼宫屋顶的时间都没有，就陷入了不可自拔的陷阱深处？

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road.

那年七月，卢沟桥炮火连天。据天津报纸报道，从天津前往北平的铁路刚恢复通车，搭载的便是四千名红军战士。火车一到达北平东站，他们便踏上了流亡之路。不知在这群人中，是否有人预料到，经历了这段“幸运营救”很久以后的1958年，他们其中还有一部分人将悄然离开北京，踏上一段未知的旅程？--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:08, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”

Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.
==Guo Lu 郭露==
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.

The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”

而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。

北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。

从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”

==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique?

Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.

1989. 9. 13

Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.

但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？

今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。

1989.9.13

请不要删除或改变这个日子。这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。

但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？

今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。

1989. 9. 13

请不要删减或更改这个日期。新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays
In the Context of Fable of September'''

Jie Lu

'''Abstract'''

In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.

'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集
以九月寓言为背景'''

吕杰

'''摘要'''

在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text.
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992.
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.

而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.

然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

正如丛书主编在序言中所说，该作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。这些文学英雄之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的旗帜（萧 1995，二），抨击了当时的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Hao 姜好==
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).

在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]

张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.

张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).

接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism.
从广义上讲，我们可以看到他的自我表现是对中国知识分子在社会中扮演的传统角色的重要重申。要求权威声音是在知识和权力结构内维持知识分子精英阶层特权地位的基础。因此，张的自我表象无非是试图根据对高级文学和通俗文学之间的明显区分来重新确立知识分子精英在文学和社会中的作用。在不断进行的知识/文化话语改革中，这场争夺文化优势和霸权的权力斗争在很大程度上定义了社会主义之后中国的社会文化条件。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:37, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Haiquan 李海泉==
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.

张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lili 李丽丽==
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Lingyue 李凌月==
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.

于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.

阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Luyi 李璐伊==
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.

与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Meng 李梦==
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear).
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village.
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜）与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Li Yu 李玉==
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age.
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices.
==Lin Min 林敏==
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.]

This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]

这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lin Xin 林鑫==
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.

唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together.
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。

小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

例如，“忆往昔”这一重要的村集体活动，由文革时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村社、创造历史、创造传奇的叙事形式。从本质上说，人们把历史从村庄的背景中全部抹去。小说对历史背景的超脱也意味着对历史解释和意义范式的形而上否定，其特征是因果、进步、目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和所指出的，张的村庄以三种形式存在：现实中的、传说或神话中的以及口述故事中的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:41, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Bo 刘博==
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.

然而，缺乏一个明确的时间框架，只会模糊和超越现实，神话，传说，魔术和故事之间的本体论界限。小说中充满了神奇的、神话的、超自然的人物和事件：牛干的尸体在他真正死亡前被风干了一段时间。一个叫金友的人可以从他的乳房里挤出牛奶。另一个人的眼球跳出来，变成了青蛙，消失在草丛中。龙然的母亲并没有因为喝农药而死，相反，她的头发变黑了，皮肤变软了。就像加西亚马尔克斯的《百年孤独》一样，这些神奇的事件在本体论的层面上以现实主义的方式呈现，就像其他“真实”事件一样。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:36, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality.

The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.

换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。
小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

换句话说，魔法每天都有，而本体论表征层面的越轨，进一步否定了历史时间性。
小说中历史时间的缺失也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担了历史解释的功能。小村子的由来在一个神话中得到了解释，这个神话讲述了一群流浪汉经过长途跋涉后疲惫不堪，停了下来，在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上定居下来。故事中具有承载能力的猴子精神成为社会分层和剥削的神话阐释，这进一步背离了历史和正面的论述。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations.

As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).

这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。

正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Ou 刘欧==
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.
通过讲故事，叙述者个人经历与神话、魔法混合在一起，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的叙述者讲述过去。因此，叙述者在讲述他自己的经历和别人的经历时，同样也在讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，从而保持传统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

通过讲故事，将叙述者的个人经历融合了神话、魔法，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的人讲述过去的经历。因此，叙述者在讲述自己的经历和别人讲述的经历时，反过来也成为那些听他讲故事的人的经历，讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，保持传统。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.

金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation.

Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.

而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。

因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。

因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence.

换句话说，语言将人类和自然区别开来，而庄子也是通过语言想象了一些超验的东西。张玮前现代主义绝不是不可言表的。然而，它的“他者性”及其对现代世界的另类性，只能在我们的现代世界中被感知，并通过现代主义或后现代主义的复杂手段来表现。乌托邦文本中心存在着一种绝对的讽刺，即原始的或前现代的东西，它只在我们的现代文化条件下无法被想象和表现。尽管作者本人在反复批判后现代主义、否认后现代主义的必然影响时，仍没有意识到这一点。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.

因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.

In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques.
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.

显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

很明显，这个原型村的创建体现了作者对前现代历史的深刻怀旧和他对理想状态的空想。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图重新定位中国当代地理和文化怀旧情怀，从商业刺激的怀旧情怀到农村作为中国人的根本根基。然而，在《小村庄》的呈现中缺乏直接的时空参考，使他的怀旧感更接近于想象，或者更接近于大卫·王所说的虚构怀旧（1993：107）。换句话说，他对小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏实际记忆。在他精心设计的时空叙事结构，对神话，传说和那些神奇事件的预言中，这尤其得到了证明。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

==Ma Juan 马娟==
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130).
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling.

Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present.

The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel.
==Meng Ying 孟莹==
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.
==Mo Ling 莫玲==
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.

最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Nan 莫南==
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109).

So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing.
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.

原始的村庄生活也不过如此：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。土地的意义与食物密切相关，事实上，村民们坚守在这片土地上的原因是这片土地可以生产出足够的食物来维持他们的群落。对年轻村民夜游野地的狂欢场面的描写得到了众多中国评论家的高度赞扬，然而在我看来，它代表的是一种无限的孤独或一种简单的快乐——这些人生活在一个极端封闭、贫穷的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:14, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

原始的乡村生活仅此而已：它是基础的、本能的，以食物和性为中心。土地的含义与食物息息相关；事实上，村民坚守这片土地的原因是它能生产出足够的食物来保护他们的。狂欢节般的场面描绘了村里的年轻人在夜晚狂野地嬉戏，尽管许多中国评论家都赞不绝口，但在我看来，这并不代表无限的孤独或一种简单的喜悦，这些人生活在极其贫困、封闭的世界里。这些年轻人长大成人后，这种锻炼形式很快就变成了毒打老婆，这令人更觉悲哀了。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ou Rong 欧蓉==
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.

村庄的社会习俗，思维方式和传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量简单地消除了静态和周期性的存在形式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统农村地区更广泛的历史影响力和缺乏文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地的意思是代表某种精神。但是，除非位于某个地方，否则这种精神只能保持一种空洞的结构。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

村庄的社会习俗、思维方式及传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量很容易便消除了这种静态、周期性的生存方式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统乡村地区更为广泛的历史影响力以及缺失的文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地代表着某种精神。但是，倘若精神无处安置，这种精神只是一种空洞的存在。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 01:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou

==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays.

''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.

......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Dan 彭丹==
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.

然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

==Peng Juan 彭娟==
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.
然而，对消费主义、全球主义和后现代主义的绝对排斥，未能认识到它们在当代中国社会重构中的力量和必然性。这些发展所造成的问题已经使得解决问题超越了道德论述的范畴。中国日益复杂和不断变化的社会和文化现实需要更加深刻和成熟的理解。最后，我认为，在今天的后冷战时代，社会主义与资本主义的对立，已经失去了其相关性和意义，对抗的思想范式必须被谈判的范式所取代。怀旧之情也许总是在吸引着我们，我们也许总是愿意沉浸在想象中的过去之旅中，讲一些像“九月寓言”这样的故事但作为一个批判的立场，它并没有装备我们有效地处理复杂的进程，文化改革发生在当代中国和世界。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 12:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)penguan

Works Cited（不用翻）

Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)

Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968)

Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)

Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)

Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)

Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.

Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)

Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a

Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105

Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"'''

''Xinmin Liu

''
'''Abstract
'''

Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi.

Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.

“”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”

刘新民

''
'''摘要
'''

自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。

张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。

==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.

In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”

它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。

在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。

在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve.
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qi Kai 漆凯==
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?

称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s?

Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).]
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones.

张先生不能抛弃他的写作形式，其通过写作蔑视官方历史的虚假神圣性并赞扬“贾赫里亚”穆斯林的纯正和廉洁行为。（中国穆斯林的一个教派，通常被认为是伊斯兰宗教的苏菲派的继承者。）在这中展现出非凡的话语权和重塑的种族身份帮助他重回舞台。虽然他仍然作为一个孤独的战士追求精神朝圣，但他几乎无法在一个想象的避难所中维持知识分子的隐居。尽管由于他的好斗和自我骄傲的语气常常使他的观点变得难以接受，但我们不一定非要因他不明智的姿态而推迟，这种姿态要比实质性的要夸张得多。相反，我们受其敦促来超越他的论证模式，并发现不可避免的文化对话吸引他，使他重新回到话语战区的前线。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.

自1990年代中期以来，张发表的论文产生了极大的吸引力和影响力，他的批判观点故意模糊了个人承诺与公众良心之间的界限。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:55, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Sagara Seydou ==
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]

很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Shi Diwen 石迪文==
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest?

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.

张承志的回答斥责了后者。早在第一次公开讨论这些问题之前，他自己写《灵魂史》的自我授权就让 "公正 "的历史真相的探索受到了批判。他以自己的民族无意识为试验场，对那些权威与沙文主义国家意识形态同流合污的''回族''史写作中错误的固定标准进行了抨击。他痛斥中国穆斯林学者史学的方法论现状，即为迎合其霸权控制的合法性，而对地方和民族记忆进行裁剪。同样，他对按照经验主义标准收集和编辑历史文献的有效性提出质疑，责备其以学术客观性为名，完全屈从于实证主义的历史发展观。
--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Si Yu 司妤==
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:

On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography?
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.

==Song Jianru 宋建茹==
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”:

It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago.

Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）

==Su Lin 苏琳==
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.

==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted.

No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').

但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

但是在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，正是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识保持鲜活，并敦促我们不要将权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。

毫无疑问，张加入了1990年代中期关于“终极关怀”的辩论，但他是按照自己的意愿这样做的。他提出了一种民族学方法，包括一个人的情感倾向（“情感”），种族血统（“血统”）和“乾定的命运”（“乾定”）。这些以各种方式相互联系和相互影响，使个人陷入与文化对话之网。然后，他以“原初之问”（“原初之问”）的形式探讨了专业主义的假想。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 01:39, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness.

A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.
Zhang 1999a, 37.
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）
他问道:“当没有任何科学或意识形态来保护你逃避终极责任时，面对自己灵魂时你如何解释?”对他来说，对他来说，回族是他终极人文关怀的原因。迈克尔·菲舍尔(Michael Fischer)认为，种族“……是一种动态的东西，往往无法被压制或避免。”即使是没有意识地教育，它也可能是有效的;制度化的教学很容易造成沙文主义、无结果和肤浅的东西。因此，正是“类我”的知觉和心理奠定了一个人的种族/文化条件的基础，并反过来影响一个人的历史意识。
一个中国化的伊斯兰术语，意为“虔诚的誓言”。它在中文中也被称为“Juyi”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.”

What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.

作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。

他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”

那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary.

==Tang Ming 唐铭==
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.

Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass.

但他作品的一个方面有力地否定了这个等式:作为一个自由的社会/文化批评家，他一直坚持对社会弊病和道德堕落的公德批判。追求人格完整性和升华的人未能抓住的东西，张远山以更敏锐的洞察力和更狂热的热情继续着。

张远山察觉到并憎恨这些人的焦虑，他们想要超越世俗的社会意义和责任，以避免成为意识形态压制的共犯。事实上，到目前为止，他最严厉的揭露都是针对主流知识分子，而不是那些贪财的“新富人”或消费主义大众。
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:53, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.”

Zhang 1994a, 125.
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）

1994年，当读者对他的《灵魂史》的反馈升温成为媒体争论的焦点时，张远山又一次带着他的长篇巨制一跃进入公众的视野：“诗人，你为什么不愤怒？”这篇文章充满了对公众的蔑视，他们完全屈服于消费主义，疯狂地追求世俗享乐；然而，在他的口头抨击中，首当其冲的是知识分子的中流砥柱。张远山指责这些人“为了金钱利益和声誉而出卖自己”，新闻媒体“像蜜蜂一样为了小恩小惠和剩饭而蜂拥而至”，文化评论家则斥责他们“对任何诚实、有原则、直截了当的批评，都会痛苦地保持沉默”。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 23:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tao Ye 陶冶==
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy.

这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。

Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.

事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.

Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994.
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Wang Yu 王煜==
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:

The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.

事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：

这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：

这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Yuan 王源==
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun.

One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.

作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。

有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.

这种奇特搭配基于同样的文化逻辑，他们认为对当前中国知识分子混乱、无能现状的批判是由以下两种因素中的一个引发的。一种是落后的由党领导的议程设置，通过在消费主义风气盛行时传达其话语以发挥社会主义意识形态遗产的权威。又或者他/她受到了一股不同的政治力量的驱使下开始的新一轮政治颠覆的影响，这股势力同时向以西方(主要是美国)为中心的全球秩序敞开大门。张的两种立场的批判者们都不约而同地，以一种“非此即彼”的思维方式，看待其在当今政治文化中所扮演的角色。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:07, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay.

Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.

==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.

其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.

Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.

==Wu Kai 吴恺==
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.

For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）

与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。

关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qi 吴琪==
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.”

'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''

''King-Fai Tam''

I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre.

Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）

他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”

'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''

''谭景辉''

首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

''谭景辉''

首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Xiang 邬香==
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.

虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again.

然而，如果一种文学体裁可以有如此多的形态和形式，我们是否仍然有理由把这些形态和形式看作一个统一的实体，用同样的方法来分析和研究?我在研究这篇文章时经常遇到这个问题。在新英格兰去年10月举办的亚洲研究协会会议上，我针对亚历山德拉•瓦格纳的演示提出了一个疑问:我们怎样运用丰富的手段来研究文章，就像研究风智,瞿秋白、和一群其他作家的作品?这个问题亚历山大，马丁.沃尔斯勒和新民刘曾提出过。现在，对这一章节里的四篇文章，我想再问一遍同样的问题。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.

我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.

然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Xi 肖茜==
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？

In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.

在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Fan 解帆==
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.

这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities.

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.

'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''Abstract'''

In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.

其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。

'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''

''Martin Woesler''

'''摘要'''

本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Xu Jing 许晶==
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.

In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.

In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

我将会介绍我提出的假设，即中国和西方的散文都属于同一种国际体裁，并尝试通过展示两者在形式和内容上的跨文化相似点来证明这一假说。但是，我也会列举中国散文的一些特殊的本土特色。

在第二部分，我尝试讲述散文在1980年代的复现开始阶段的事情。1995年前，国际学术界开始运用常见的语言学方法来探索单篇散文和散文集，并撰写了中国散文的历史。之后，我将展示政治性散文和非政治性散文的主题发展。

在第三部分，我将提出我的问题，即谁是20世纪中国散文的代表人物？--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.

我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

我将介绍鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以一直是读者最多的散文家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆录和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural

Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world.

The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.

在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。

当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).

在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

在中国，我们能看到人们通过论文这一媒介，又有了讨论社会政治问题的兴致，就如同上世纪二三十年代那样。日常生活成为文学主题时，我们就会意识到它的平淡无味，就像在散文中表现的那样，散文通常描写的就是日常生活。中国社会的去意识形态化，让人们重新发现自民国时期，特别是1923至1928年以来的非政治性散文。20世纪90年代，80年代用散文进行政治批评的文化已经消失了，唯一留下来的政治痕迹是爱国主义，例如在1996年出版的专论《中国可以说不!-冷战后政治和情感的可能性》中传达的那样(见《中国可以说不！》)。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

'''1. CHARACTERISTICS

1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''

Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.

1. 特征

1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式

与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

'''1. 特征

1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''

和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.

“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.

该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.

Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.

不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。

地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yi 杨逸==
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.

In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay.

==Yang Yue 杨悦==
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).

The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。

当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yao Cheng 姚诚==

This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.

Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.

这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。

进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

==Yao Jia 姚佳==

'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''

Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.

In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).

'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。

20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Huan 易欢==

Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).

Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.

Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.

'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''

The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.

在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==

Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.

I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.

而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

划词翻译
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。

我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==

This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.

在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.

在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==

The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.

非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==

'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''

Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?

Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.

One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.

'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？

这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''

20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?

这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。

人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==

During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.

在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

在他的一生中，凭借尖锐的抨击，他成为最著名的作家。但他的文章都是与时政相关，在今天很少有人读了。分析表明，直到20世纪末，他的作品依旧最受欢迎。二十世纪末阅读量排行榜前十的不是他的《杂文》，而是以下回忆录和抒情随笔:《秋夜》(鲁迅1925)--一篇《野草》中的抒情随笔、《藤野先生》(鲁迅1926)--他还记着自己的日本老师、《风筝》(鲁迅1925)中--他记得他曾经怎样伤害过弟弟的感情、《从百株园到三味书房》(鲁迅1926)--这篇也同样以古典文学的方式叙述了其童年经历。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in atmospherical nebulous the “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).

其它最频繁出版的散文多写于民国或当代：首先是《背影》（朱自清1928）。因为这整部作品，朱自清曾短暂地名列鲁迅之后。人们可由此及其它散文看出中华人民共和国对散文畅销书的评判标准：在《背影》中，孝是推动故事发展的因素，在朱自清另一部散文《荷塘月色》中，气氛朦胧，排比反复，这种风格在西方读者看来也许是有些矫揉造作的。在《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》里（朱自清1924），作者描绘了一副优美风光，再现传统风俗。怀乡情绪则是《故乡的野菜》（周作人1925）中极具辨识度的感情色彩。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:56, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==

Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife.

Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.

Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.

For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。

决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。

因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。

有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hu 张虎==

The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).

Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).

大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。

从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.

A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.

王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931））和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。

朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。

1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，在落叶寓言中阐述生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，也十分有趣。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==

'''3.Trends

3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''

What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.

The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.
3.潮流与趋势
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3.趋势
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。

“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.

共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。好方法”（王萌，1994年）。这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==

Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).

'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''

From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:

-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);

20世纪80，90年代的其他杂文则是一种新的主观主义，以摆脱当代矛盾为目标，而是通过创造一个积极的世界（贾平凹1984年的《山西戏曲》)或消极的世界（司宇1995年的《噩梦》)来迎合观众的感受。

''3.2作为社会，个性，社会政治讨论，去意识形态化，日常的亵渎和平庸的轻快节奏的性质的文章的体裁''

从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代的“文学思潮”，这也是90年代这一体裁数量增加的原因:

--当下中国社会节奏急促的本质，以及它对转移性和短小文本的要求:...]我们生活在一个博览会的时代

==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==

-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands;

-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.

-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.

-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。

- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；

-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。

-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。

中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”).

-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.

-关于散文集的编辑：对于中华人民共和国，台湾和香港最常被选的散文，道德和审美标准似乎已成为基础。这表明论文选集的编辑越来越独立于政府或意识形态的障碍，而且出版社的商业化也越来越着眼于客户（前身为“读者”）。

-在1990年代后半期，主叙述者本人似乎迷失于个人的主观性以及日常的亵渎和平庸，以及越来越正式化但基本上空虚的城市生活。时间浪费了价值，因为越来越多的日常活动充满了机械和自闭症的行为。
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==

In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).

The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.

20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。

从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==

-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984).

1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.

2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.

老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，例如文章《小狗包弟》（巴金，1981）中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾和沈从文身上看到的虚构现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的。例如，在《小狗包弟》（巴金1981）一文中，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述性的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984b）。类似的还有想象的怀旧概念，如王家卫所说的沈从文作品中的虚构真相（王家卫1992），对《昆明的雨》（汪曾祺[1984]）以及《山西戏曲》（贾平凹1984）的阅读都有帮助。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。

2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).

'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''

Martin Woesler

The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.

施瓦茨的''个人悲伤''概念以''隐喻话语''的方式表达，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他所熟知的''存在的真相''，而只是通过对他的狗，宝迪，进行隐喻达到一个更有说服力的''虚构的真相'"（施瓦茨，1996）。

'''20世纪中国散文--散文家巴金、周作人、朱自清的文体调查与新见解'''

吴漠汀

文学史和选本建立的叙事，对20世纪的中国文学进行了歪曲的描绘。文章的体裁几乎被忽略了。在我的论文中将证明，如果我们考虑到他们的一些散文作品，三位作家的形象将如何变化。在此，我选择了批判性政治文章的例子。与小说或诗歌相比，散文更能让我们了解一个作者，因为在这种文体中，我们遇到的是没有格律限制的作者本人。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 11:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==

In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers".

1927年，当作家们受到上海国民党左派屠杀的威胁时，整整一代的作家找到了共产主义意识形态的共同基础，1930年，在“左翼作家联盟”的成立中正式表达。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.

许多作家不得不定义并经常重新定义他们的立场和自我理解，以回应不断变化的政治环境，往往埋葬自己的理想，从“需要”的社会这个更大的视角，它也声称作者是其产品之一。在政治化的环境中寻找职位的斗争最好在散文中记录-“自我反省的类型”。此外，就其本质而言，散文克服了形式和内容的界限。因此，没有政治思想的散文比小说多。一些散文家甚至更进一步，解构了左派意识形态的大师叙事，就像我今天要谈论的三位作家一样。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==

'''Zhou Zuoren'''

The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.

周作人

中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

周作人

民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==

The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots.

3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]

4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).

5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==

So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.

The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.

因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==

Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.

"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.

==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==

"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.

'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''

Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.

1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。

'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''

巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==

One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:

这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者会想，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能如此，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

狗是个比喻。一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只与主人有关。但很快，我们就明白了，巴金实际上向读者表达了“文化大革命”的残酷性。读者想知道，“如果他们用一只“无辜”的狗都做这些，那他们对那些认为“有罪”的人呢？当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:52, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).

7 (Zhou 1923).

8 (The Family in 1951)

9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).

10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..

11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).

2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him.

==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==

3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.

本文是对'文革'的控诉。没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.

==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==

5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==

6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out

"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."

6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。

正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.

综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

20201214 cult

2020-12-21T03:17:24Z

Zhang Yinliu: /* Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 */

==Alsied, Saffana==

==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==
1.儒家精神有其相对稳定、不易改变的一面。它不完全受社会形态的影响，有较为普遍的适应性，可以跨越不同社会历史时期，被不同政治制度、不同经济形态和不同文化背景下的人们所接受。

The spirit of Confucianism is relatively stable and unchangeable. It is not entirely influenced by social forms and has a more universal adaptability, and can be accepted across different socio-historical periods and by people in different political systems, different economic forms and different cultural backgrounds.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 05:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucianism is relatively stable and unchangeable in some degree as it does not easily affected by different societies and has a quality of adaptability. On the long river of various social history, Confucianism has been well-accepted by people from different political, economic and cultural backgrounds.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 01:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道家从维护个人利益的角度出发，在经济理论、社会实践方面创立了“人本”的思想观点，主张通过维护每个人的个人利益来达到社会的和谐繁荣。

From the perspective of protecting the interests of the individual, Taoism has created a "humanistic" ideology in economic theory and social practice, advocating that social harmony and prosperity can be achieved by protecting the individual interests of each person.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 05:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

From the perspective of defending individual interests, Taoism has created a "humanistic" ideology in economic theory and social practices, advocating that social harmony and prosperity can be achieved by safeguarding the interests of every citizen.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Han 陈涵==

1.儒家思想精髓在于它的社会伦理思想，正是封建社会伦理观从国家统治阶级的高度期望出发将人们生活现实中的行为规范用通俗的语言规范起来，让农民成为社会道德思想的奴隶，而这种封建伦理观作为封建统治阶级上层建筑社会意识中的最广泛影响治理社会群众基础的核心，从而完成对国家社会双重治理的理想效果。

The essence of Confucianism lies in its social ethical thought. It is the thought of feudal society that regulates the behavior norms of people’s lives in popular language from the high expectations of the country’s ruling class, making the peasants be enslaved to social ethics. As the core of the social consciousness of the feudal ruling class superstructure, which has the most extensive influence on governing the society and the people, it has achieved the ideal effect of dual governance of the state and society. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道教把生命看得极为重要，修道就是要长生不死，主张通过修炼来延长生命的长度，提高生命存在的质量，以达到生命的永恒。道教主张以清净无为、不争寡欲的态度对待世俗生活，以“我命在我不在天”的精神进行修炼，通过各种道术修炼，与道合一，成为长生不死的神仙。

Taoism regards life as extremely important and practicing Taoism is to become immortal. It advocates to extend the length of life and improve the quality of life by practicing, so as to achieve eternity of life. Taoism holds an attitude of purity and non-contentiousness towards worldly life, and cultivation in the spirit of "I am the master of my fate", so that through various Taoist practices, one can unite with the Tao and become an immortal deity. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:04, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==

1.孔子生而七漏，头上圩顶，而又因其母曾祷于尼丘山，故名“丘”，字“仲尼”。

Confucius was born terribly ugly with a bump on the head, and as his mother once prayed on Mount Niqiu for his birth, he is named “Qiu” with the word “Zhongni”.

2.道家认为只有老百姓认可的平等才幸福，人们想要没有徭役租赋负担，“内足衣食之用，外无势利之争”的社会

Taoism claims that only the sort of equality that the ordinary people recognized will bring true happiness. People are yearn to be free from labour rent and taxes and to live in a society with adequate food and clothes and no struggle for power and gains.

==Dashkin, Gennadii==

1. It's generally believed that when Confucius was in his late 60s, he returned to his hometown Qufu in Shandong Province. For several years in his early 70s, he taught a group of disciples who later propagated his beliefs and developed their own philosophies.

人们普遍认为，孔子在六十多岁时回到了他的家乡山东曲阜。在70年代初期的几年中，他教过一群门徒，后来这些人传播了自己的信仰并发展了自己的哲学。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 14:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

我们通常认为，孔子在六十多岁时回到了他的家乡山东曲阜。在七十多岁的前几年，他教过一群门徒，后来这些人传播了他的信仰并发展了自己的哲学。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:14, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2. Consequently, many leaders of Taoism had gained great respects from the imperial governments.

因此，许多道教领袖得到了帝王政府的尊敬。--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 14:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

因此，许多道教领袖都受到了朝政的尊敬。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:14, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==
1. 孔子提出“有教无类”，认为人人都应该受教育。在教育实践中创立了灵活多样的教学方法，提倡“学”与“思”的结合、学习与复习的结合以及教与学的结合，讲求因材施教和启发式教学等等。

Confucius maintained the idea that everyone has the right to be educated despite class differences. In teaching practice, Confucius adopted flexible teaching methods which involve the combinations of learning and thinking, learning and reviewing as well as teaching and learning. He strived for educating students in accordance with their aptitude and adopted a heuristic style of teaching.

Confucius put forward "there is no kind of education," and believed that everyone should be educated. In educational practice, flexible and diverse teaching methods have been created, advocating the combination of "learning" and "thinking", the combination of learning and review, and the combination of teaching and learning, and emphasis on teaching students in accordance with their aptitude and heuristic teaching, etc.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 道家强调自由、自然、修身养性，甚至追求永生。道教对中国文化的许多领域都产生了深刻而持久的影响，包括艺术、哲学、医学和美食，并在东亚地区广泛流传。

Daoism emphasizes freedom, nature, self-cultivation and even pursues immortality. Daoism has had a deep and lasting influence in many fields of Chinese culture, including the arts, philosophy, medicine, and cuisine. It has also spread widely throughout East Asia.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:18, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism emphasizes freedom, nature, self-cultivation, and even the pursuit of immortality. Taoism has had a profound and lasting influence on many areas of Chinese culture, including art, philosophy, medicine, and gastronomy, and it has spread widely in East Asia.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==

1.孔子的哲学思想强调个人美德和政治原则、和谐的社会秩序以及公正和真诚的社会环境。

The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The philosophy of Confucius emphasizes on personal morality, political principles, harmonious social order, justice, and sincere social environment.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.老子是中国历史上伟大的哲学家、作家。他不仅是道家的创始人，也成为了道教中供奉的一位神祇。

Laozi is a great philosopher and writer in Chinese ancient history. He is not only the founder of philosophical Daoism, but also worshipped as a deity in religious Daoism. --[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Laozi, a great philosopher and writer in Chinese history, had not only became the founder of Taoism, but also a deity worshipped by Taoism.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==
1.儒家思想以传统封建社会为物质承担者，传统封建社会以儒家思想为精神承担者，传统社会的瓦解，致使孔子圣人权威丧失。

The Confucianism takes traditional feudal society as material undertaker while the latter takes the former as sipiritual undertaker. Therefore, the disintegration of traditional society causes the Sage Confucius to lose his authority.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 05:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucianism takes the traditional feudal society as its material undertaker, while the traditional feudal society takes Confucianism as its spiritual undertaker. The collapse of the traditional society leads to the loss of Confucius’ authority.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:31, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道家作为一种思想流派，崇尚大道，主张“惟道是从、道法自然”，主要从事的是学术活动和政治文化活动，奉《道德经》、《庄子》、《黄帝四经》等为经典。

As a school of thought, Taoism advocates the great truth and follows the principle of nature. It is mainly for academic, political and cultural activities and regards Tao Te Ching,Chuang-tzu and Huang Di Si Jing as classics.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 05:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism, a school of thought, advocates the great truth and follows the principle of nature. It mainly serves academic, political and cultural activities and regards Tao Te Ching, Chuang-tzu and Four Classics of the Yellow Emperor as classics.--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:31, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==
1、“儒学”、“儒家”、“儒教”这些概念要分清。儒学作为一种学说，儒家作为一个阶层，儒教作为一种信仰，三者需要区分开来。

We should clearly distinguish the three concepts ---- Confucianism, Confucianist, Confucian religion, among which Confucianism is a theory and Confucianist is a strata and Confucian religion is a religion. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The concepts of "Confucianism", "Confucianism" and "Confucianism" must be distinguished. Confucianism as a doctrine, Confucianism as a class, and Confucianism as a belief, the three need to be distinguished.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 08:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2、在我国优秀传统文化中，道家思想蕴含了和谐理想、平等观念、诚信美德等诸多伦理智慧，这些思想很多都与社会主义核心价值观具有相通性，它们为社会主义核心价值观构筑了坚实的文化沃土。

In Chinese excellent traditional cultures, Taoism contains such ethics and wisdom as the desire for harmony, the idea of equality and the virtue of honesty, many of which have commonalities with the core values of socialism and have laid a solid cultural foundation for the core values of socialism. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In Chinese excellent traditional culture, Taoism contains many ethical wisdoms, such as the ideal of harmony, the concept of equality, and the virtue of honesty. Many of these ideas have similarities with the core socialist values. They have built a solid cultural fertile ground for the core socialist values.

In my country’s excellent traditional culture, Taoism contains many ethical wisdoms, such as the ideal of harmony, the concept of equality, and the virtue of honesty. Many of these ideas have similarities with the core socialist values. They have built a solid cultural fertile ground for the core socialist values.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 08:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Grosheva, Anna==

1. Confucianism is the main ancient philosophy of China. It implicitly embodies key aspects of Chinese culture. Confucian beliefs have constantly changed and developed over the past 2,500 years.
儒学是中国的主要古代哲学。它隐含了中国文化的关键方面。在过去的2500年中，儒家信仰不断变化和发展。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2. During its popularization since its birth, Taoism had long been a kind of high-level culture, and widely pursued by the upper-class society.
道教自诞生之日起就一直是一种高级文化，并受到上层社会的广泛追捧。--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==
1.儒学社会政治层面功能的形成和加强，同时也就减弱了儒学作为一般伦理道德修养和政治理想层面的作用。在原始儒学那里，它是通过道德教育、理想教育去启发出人们遵守道德规范、追求理想社会的自觉。

The formation and strengthening of the socio-political dimension of Confucianism simultaneously diminished its role as a general ethical and moral cultivation and political ideal. In primitive Confucianism, it is through moral education, ideal education to inspire people to abide by moral norms and pursue an ideal society.

2.在道教文化杂而多端的内容当中，有一个核心，就是道教神仙信仰。道教作为一个成熟的宗教，具有一套自己的神学理论，有一种能够吸引人们进行追求的宗教信仰目标。这种信仰就是，人可以通过努力追求而成为长生不死、功能广大的神仙。

Among the miscellaneous and multifaceted contents of Taoist culture, there is a core, which is the belief in Taoist gods and immortals. As a mature religion, Taoism has a set of theological theories and a religious goal that attracts people to pursue. This belief is that people can become immortal and functional deities through hard work.

==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==

==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==

1. 四书五经是儒家施行其儒学教化的重要教科书，中国古代文人科举做官的必读书。

The Four Books and The Five Classics are the most important textbooks for the Confucian scholars to disseminate the educational thoughts of the Confucian School and a must for ancient scholars who had to pass the imperial competitive examination to become government officials.

2.道，代表宇宙本体和法则的统一，高度的抽象性与普遍意义是它的特点。

Tao, which refers to the integration of the noumenon and rules of the cosmos, is characterized by its deep abstraction and universal significance.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 12:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

The Tao, representing the unity of the essence and laws of the universe, is characterized by its high degree of abstraction and universal significance.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:13, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Guirou, Barthelemy==

==Guo Lu 郭露==
1. 孔子是我国古代伟大的思想家和教育家,儒家学派创始人,世界最著名的文化名人之一。孔子的言行思想主要载于语录体散文集《论语》。

Confucius was a great thinker of ancient China and educator, he is also the founder of Confucianism and one of the world's most famous cultural figures. His words and deeds were mainly recorded in his work ''The Analects''.

Confucius is a great thinker and educator in ancient China, he is also the founder of Confucianism and one of the world's most famous cultural figures. His words and deeds were mainly recorded in his work ''The Analects''.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道教(或道教)是指各种相关的中国哲学传统和概念的英文名称。这些传统影响了东亚两千多年，有些还在国际上传播。道家的礼教和伦理强调 "道 "的三宝，即“慈、俭、让”。道家思想注重 "无为"、"人本"、"虚无"。无为常常被错误地翻译为（"无所作为"），这种错误由于非道家学者的翻译而广泛传播。道教强调人与自然的联系。道教认为，这种联系减少了对规则和秩序的需要，使人更好地理解世界。

Taoism (or Daoism) is the English name referring to a variety of related Chinese philosophical traditions and concepts. These traditions influenced East Asia for over two thousand years and some have spread internationally. Taoist propriety and ethics emphasize the Three Jewels of the Tao; namely, compassion, moderation, and humility. Taoist thought focuses on wu wei (" action that does not involve struggle or excessive effort" ) spontaneity, humanism, and emptiness. Wu wei is often incorrectly translated as ("non-action") and this error has propagated widely as a result of translations made by academics who are non practising Taoists. An emphasis is placed on the link between people and nature. Taoism teaches that this link lessened the need for rules and order, and leads one to a better understanding of the world.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ha, Thi Thu Hang==

1.Although Confucianism became the official ideology of the Chinese state, it never turned into an established religion with a church and priesthood.

尽管儒学成为中华民族的官方意识形态，但它从来没有发展成为具有教会和神职人员的宗教。

2.The Four Books form the basis of Confucianism.

这四本书构成了儒学的基础。

3.In education, Confucius upheld the theory that “in education, there is no class distinction.

在教育方面，孔子坚持“在教育中没有阶级区别的理论”。--[[User:HATHITHUHANG2|HATHITHUHANG2]] ([[User talk:HATHITHUHANG2|talk]]) 16:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

在教育方面，孔子坚持“有教无类。”--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:15, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==He Changqi 何长琦==

==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==
1.孔子是中国儒学的创始人。两千余年来，儒家思想对中国的影响不仅体政治、政治、文化等方面，也体每一个中国人的行为和思维方式之中。

Confucius is the founder of Confucianism in China. For more than two thousand years, the influence of Confucianism on China is not only in politics, politics, culture and so on, but also in the behavior and mode of thinking of every Chinese.

Confucius is the founder of Confucianism in China. For more than two thousand years, the influence of his Confucianism on China is not only in politics,culture and so on, but also in the behavior and mode of thinking of every Chinese.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道教在世界宗教中是独一无二的，因为它没有官方的教条和教义。它最重要的文本是《道德经》和《庄子》，这两本书可能被认为是文学或哲学作品，而不是宗教文本。

Daoism is unique among world religions in that it has no official dogma or doctrine. Its most important texts are The Tao Te Ching and The Chuang Tzu, both of which might be considered works of literature or philosophy more than religious texts. --[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Daoism is unique among world religions in that it has no official dogma or doctrine. Its most important texts are The Tao Te Ching and The Chuang Tzu, both of which might be considered works of literature or philosophy instead of religious texts.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Daoism is unique among world religions in that it has no official dogma or doctrine. Its most important texts are The Tao Te Ching and The Chuang Tzu, both of which might be considered as works of literature or philosophy rather than religious texts.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Hu Jin 胡瑾==
1. 孔子是儒家学派的创始人，也是春秋时期人本主义思想的集大成者。儒家思想已成为我们文化遗产中的一部分。

Confucius was the founder of the Confucian school and the main Humanist thinker of the Spring and Autumn Period. Confucian ideas have become part of our cultural inheritance.

Confucius was the founder of the Confucianism and the major Humanist thinker in the Spring and Autumn Period, whose ideas have become part of our cultural inheritance.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucius was the founder of the Confucian school and a master of humanistic thoughts in the Spring and Autumn Period. And Confucianism has become a part of our cultural inheritance.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 05:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 传统上，道教是归因于三个来源，最古老的是黄帝传说，但最著名的是老子的《道德经》。第三个来源就是庄子的作品。道教的最初来源据说是古代的《易经》。

Traditionally, Taoism has been attributed to three sources, the oldest being the legendary ‘Yellow Emperor’, but the most famous is Lao Zi's Tao Teh Ching. The third source is Chuang Tzu's work. However, the original source of Taoism is said to be the Book of Changes.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 08:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==

孔子在中国历史上最早提出人的天赋素质相近，个性差异主要是因为后天教育与社会环境影响（“性相近也，习相远也”）。因而人人都可能受教育，人人都应该受教育。

Confucius was the first Chinese to argue that human beings are endowed with similar qualities, and personality differences are mainly due to the influence of education and social environment ("By nature men are similar to one another, but learning and practice make them different."). Thus, everyone could be and should be educated.

庄子在哲学思想上继承和发展了老子“道法自然”的思想观点，使道家真正成为一个学派，他自己也成为了道家的重要代表人物，与老子并称“道家之祖”。

Zhuangzi inherited and developed Laozi's philosophical idea of "the natural law", making Taoism an academic school, and he himself became an important representative of Taoism, known as "the ancestor of Taoism" together with Laozi.--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:54, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Zhuangzi inherited and developed Laozi's idea of "Tao following nature" in philosophy, making Taoism a school of thought. He himself became an important representative of Taoism and was called "the ancestor of Taoism" with Laozi.--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 09:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==

1.儒家思想是先秦诸子百家学说之一，由孔子于公元前5世纪创立，是中国影响力最大的流派，也是中国古代的主流意识。儒家思想的内涵丰富复杂，在广泛汲取古代典籍精华的基础上逐步发展出基础理论和思想，即讲大一统、讲君臣父子。由程朱理学、陆王心学到废除封建君主专制制度等，都体现了儒家思想的内容。

Confucianism is one of the various schools of thought in pre-Qin period, established by Confucius in the 5th century BC. It is the most influential school in China and the mainstream ideology in ancient China. The connotation of Confucianism is rich and complex. On the basis of extensively absorbing the essence of ancient classics, it has gradually developed the basic theories and thoughts, namely, the great unification and the emperor and the subjects just like father and sons. Besides, the philosophy of Cheng and Zhu, the philosophy of Lu and Wang, the abolition of the feudal autocratic monarchy, and so on are all the embodiment of Confucianism.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道家思想是无所不能、永恒不灭，有辩证法因素和无神论倾向，是老子总结古老的道家思想所形成的完整系统理论，它以“道”为最高哲学范畴，认为“道”是世界的最高真理，是宇宙万物的本源，也是宇宙万物赖以生存的依据。其主流派有黄老学派，鬼谷子纵横家、修真派、法家学派、玄学、杨朱学派。无为、不争，是老子对君王的告诫，汉文帝、唐太宗、宋仁宗、明太祖等皆以道家思想治国，使人民从前朝苛政之后得以休养生息。

Taoism, omnipotent and eternal, with a tendency to dialectical factors and atheism, is a complete system of theories formed by Lao Zi by summarizing ancient Taoist thoughts. It takes "Tao" as the highest philosophy and truth, the origin of the universe, and also the basis for the existence of the universe. Its main schools are Huang Lao school, Guiguzi school, Xiuzhen school, Legalist school, metaphysics, and Yang Zhu school. Lao Zi persuaded emperors to do nothing and fight for nothing. And Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty, Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty and Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty all ruled with Taoist thoughts, so that people could recover from the tyranny of the previous dynasty.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==
1. 理学是中国古代最为精致、最为完备的理论体系，其影响至深至巨。理学的天理是道德神学，同时成为儒家神权和王权的合法性依据，至南宋末期被采纳为官方哲学。

Neo-Confucianism is the most exquisite and complete theoretical system in ancient China, and its influence is profound and enormous. The natural principle of Neo-Confucianism is moral theology, which has become the legal basis of Confucian theocracy and kingship, and was adopted as official philosophy at the end of Southern Song Dynasty.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Neo-Confucianism is the most comprehensive and complete theoretical system in ancient China, and its influence is profound and enormous in wide and in-depth. The core of Neo-Confucianism is moral theology, which has become the legal basis of Confucian theocracy and kingship, and was adopted as official philosophy at the end of Southern Song Dynasty.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 古代道家崇尚自然，有辩证法的因素和无神论的倾向，但是主张清静无为，反对斗争。

Ancient Taoism advocates nature, has dialectic factors and atheism tendency, but advocates quietism and opposes struggle.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==

1. 大学之道，在明明德，在亲民，在止于至善。

The purpose of the university is to reveal noble virtues, to make people get rid of old habits, and to reach the highest state of goodness.

2.福之所倚，福兮祸之所伏。

It means that blessings and disasters are interdependent and transform each other. The metaphor is that bad things can lead to good results, and good things can lead to bad results. In other words, under certain conditions, blessings can become disasters and disasters can become blessings.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==
1、儒家学派的创始人孔子第一次打破了旧统治阶级垄断教育的局面，变“学在官府”为“有教无类”，使传统文化教育播及到整个民族。因此儒家思想有了坚实的民族心理基础，为全社会所接受并逐步儒化了全社会。但是儒学在历史上也多次遭受严重冲击，近至满清的文字狱，毁古书严重的《四库全书》，远至秦始皇焚书令等。

Confucius, the founder of the Confucian school, broke the monopoly of the old ruling class on education for the first time, changed the "learning in the government" to "teaching without class", and spread traditional culture and education to the whole nation. As a result, Confucianism had a solid national psychological foundation and was accepted by society as a whole, which gradually became Confucianized. However, Confucianism has also suffered many serious impacts in history, from the Manchu Qing dynasty's written jails to the destruction of ancient books in the Siku Quanshu, and the Qin Shihuang's book burning order.

Confucius, the founder of the Confucian school, broke the monopoly of education by the old ruling class for the first time, changing "study in the government" to "education without class", so that traditional cultural education spread to the entire nation. Therefore, Confucianism has a solid national psychological foundation, accepted by the whole society and gradually Confucianized the whole society. However, Confucianism has also suffered severe impacts in history many times, as far as the Manchu literary prison, the "Siku Quanshu", which has severely destroyed ancient books, and as far as the book burning order of Qin Shihuang.--[[User:Gennadii Dashkin|Gennadii Dashkin]] ([[User talk:Gennadii Dashkin|talk]]) 14:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2、一般认为道家思想的特征之一，是通过各种修炼而达到永恒不死的至高完美境界，“因而开创了中医养生学” ；又从炼丹实践中发明了火药，中国四大发明都与道教有关。从养生学源流的角度说：寿命无限。

It is generally believed that one of the characteristics of Taoist thought is to achieve the supreme perfection of eternal immortality through various cultivations, thus it creating the science of Chinese medicine and health and from the practice of alchemy, gunpowder was invented, and the four major inventions of China are all related to Taoism. From the perspective of the source of health science:it means infinite life span.--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

==Li Lili 李丽丽==

1.董仲舒顺应汉武帝强权的需要，倡导“罢黜百家，独尊儒家”的思想。
Dong Zhongshu adapted to the needs of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty to strengthen power, and advocated the idea of "deposing hundreds of schools and respecting Confucianism only". --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

2.道家以“道”为核心，是“诸子百家”中一门极为重要的哲学流派，存在于中华各文化领域，对中国乃至世界的文化都产生了巨大的影响。
Taoism, with "Tao" as its core， is a very important philosophical school in "various schools of thought". It exists in all cultural fields of China and has a great impact on Chinese and even the world culture.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

==Li Liqin 李丽琴==
1. 儒家在先秦时期和诸子百家地位平等，秦始皇焚书坑儒后，使儒家遭受重创。而后汉武帝为了维护封建专制统治，听从董仲舒“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”的建议，对思想实施钳制，使儒家重新兴起。历经两千多年的发展演变，儒学文化构建起完整的思想体系，涉及政治、教育、道德伦理、行为准则、生活技艺等诸多方面，长期涵养国人的智慧和心灵，形成固定思维、心理以及生存模式，可谓根深蒂固。

Confucian school was on an equal footing with the other hundred schools in the pre-Qin period. After the First Emperor of Qin, also called Qin Shihuang, burned books and buried scholars alive, the development of the Confucian school suffered a serious defeat. Then, in order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's advice of "banishing other schools of thought and worshiping Confucianism only" and imposed restrictions on thought, which led to the revival of Confucian school. After more than two thousand years of development and evolution, Confucian culture has built up a complete ideological system, involving politics, education, morality, ethics, code of conduct, life skills and other aspects. It has cultivated the wisdom and soul of the Chinese people throughout the history, and formed deep-rooted set patterns of thinking, psychology and survival. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:17, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 《老子》是道家学派的主要著作之一，它的产生丰富了我国传统文化和思想宝库。老子是道家思想的创始人，他提出了许多重要的范畴和观点，在中国哲学史上独放异彩，并给予后世以深远影响。

''Laozi'' is one of the main works of the Taoist School; its production enriches our country's traditional culture and stock house of thoughts. Lao Zi, the founder of the Taoism, proposed a lot of important views and conceptions which have original enchantment in Chinese philosophy, and influence the afterworld deeply. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:17, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

''Laozi'' is one of the main works of the Taoism and its production enriches our traditional culture and the treasury of thoughts. Lao Zi, the founder of the Taoism, proposed many important views and conceptions which have original enchantment in Chinese philosophy, and have a far-reaching influence on the afterworld.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Liu 刘柳==

1.人道主义是人类永恒的主题，对于任何社会，任何时代，任何一个政府都是适用的，而秩序和制度社会则是建立人类文明社会的基本要求。

Humanity is the eternal theme of humanity, applicable to any society, any era, any government, while order and institutional society are the basic requirements for building a civilized human society.

Humanitarianism is the eternal theme of humanity, applicable to any society, any era, any government, while order and institutional society are the basic requirements for building a civilized human society.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

Humanity is the eternal theme of human society, and it is applicable to any society, any era, and any government. Order and institution is the basic requirement for building a civilized human society.
----

2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。

Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only religion that originated in China and was founded by Chinese people, so it is also known as a native religion.--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only one that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese, so it is also known as a native religion.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Liu Ou 刘欧==

==Liu Yi 刘艺==
1、孔子的大同社会、小康社会理想对中国后世影响深远。后来不同历史时期，不同阶段的思想家提出不同内容的憧憬蓝图和奋斗目标，这种思想对进步思想家、改革家也有一定启发，洪秀全、康有为、谭嗣同和孙中山都受其影响。

Confucius' ideal of a commonwealth society and a moderately prosperous society had a profound influence on later generations in China. Later on, thinkers at different stages of history put forward different content of visionary blueprints and goals to strive for, and such ideas also inspired progressive thinkers and reformers, with Hong Xiuquan, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and Sun Yat-sen being influenced by them.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

The social ideal of a commonwealth society and a moderately prosperous society from Confucius has posed profound impacts on China's future generations. Later, even in sundry historical times, miscellaneous idealists put forward different blueprints and struggle goals, which indicated that Confucius ideal has inspired advanced idealists and refomers, including Hong Xiuquan, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and Sun Zhongshan.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

2、新中国成立后，对旧社会道教中存在的一些不合理制度和陋习进行了改革，道教的面目为之一新。中国道教协会的成立实现了全国道教徒的大联合，广大爱国道教徒开始为发展道教事业共同努力。道教在反右斗争、大跃进、人民公社化等政治运动中受到波及。

After the founding of New China, some unreasonable systems and bad practices that existed in Taoism in the old society were reformed, and Taoism took on a new face. The establishment of the Chinese Taoist Association realized the unification of Taoists nationwide, and the majority of patriotic Taoists began to work together for the development of Taoism. Taoism was affected by political movements such as the anti-rightist struggle, the Great Leap Forward, and the Communization of the People's Commune.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Taoism was out of some unreasonable systems and bad practices in the old society were reformed and it then took on a new face. The establishment of the Chinese Taoist Association promoted the unification of Taoists nationwide, and the majority of patriotic Taoists began to work together for the development of Taoism. However, Taoism was affected by political movements such as the anti-rightist struggle, the Great Leap Forward, and the Communization of the People's Commune.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 05:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==
从鸦片战争到戊戌变法是新儒学的准备阶段，这一阶段主要表现为儒家学者在西方文明冲击之下被动接受西方文明的一些内容以求自强。
The period from the Opium War to the Hundred Days Reform was the preparatory period of Neo-Confucianism,which was characterized by the passive acceptance of some elements of Western civilization by Confucian scholars in order to strengthen themselves under the impact of Western civilization.

道教源于神仙思想和神仙方术。虽神仙方术没有系统的理论，但神仙家信仰的方术被道教承袭，神仙方术演化为道教的修炼方术，神仙方士演化为道家的道士。
Taoism originated from the idea of the divine immortals and the divine immortal arts. Given the fact that there is no systematic theory of divine and immortalism, the divine and immortalist beliefs were inherited by Taoism. The divine and immortalist prescriptions evolved into Taoist cultivation prescriptions, and the divine and immortalist practitioners evolved into Taoist priests.--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Lo, Minh Thao==

==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==
1 孔子（公元前551～公元前479）名丘，字仲尼，是中华文化思想的集大成者，儒家学说的创始人。我国古代伟大的思想家、政治家、教育家。他的哲学思想提倡“仁义”，“礼乐”，“德治教化”,儒学思想渗入中国人的生活，文化领域中，同时也影响了世界上其它地区的大部分人近两千年。

Confucius (551BC-479 BC), whose name is Qiu, courtesy name Zhong Ni, is the master of Chinese culture and thought and the founder of Confucianism. He is a great thinker, statesman and educator in ancient China. His philosophy advocated "benevolence and righteousness", "rites and music", and "moral education". Confucianism permeated the life and culture of the Chinese people, and also influenced most people in other parts of the world for nearly two thousand years.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2 在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。新中国成立后，通过宗教制度民主改革，中国道教获得了新生，逐渐走上了与社会主义社会相适应的道路。改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。

Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only one that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese, so it is also known as the native religion. Taoism had a profound influence on the politics, economy and culture of ancient China and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Taoism gained a new life through the democratic reform of the religious system and gradually embarked on the road to adapt to the socialist society. Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the religious policies of the Party and the government in the new era, Taoism in China has taken on an unprecedented new look and made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:14, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==

==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==

1.在大同的世界里，天下的人，不止以自己的家人为亲，不止以自己的父母儿女为爱，而是相互敬爱，爱天下所有的人。使老有所终，壮有所用，孩子们都能获得温暖与关怀，孤独的人与残疾者都有所依靠，男人各自有自己的事情，女人有满意的归宿。

Love each other not only in our family, but also in the world. Make the old have a home, strong and useful, children can get warmth and care, lonely people and the disabled can rely on others, men have their own businesses, women have a satisfactory home.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.儒家认为平等是来自于人性，人性是善良的那么人类社会也应该是善良的，既被证成的平等；而道家认为过去平等已经有很好的发展成果，那么在现有的平等认知基础上现在以及未来社会应该发展的更好才是，但是儒家礼教阶层阻碍了人类发展并成为窃国诸侯剥削百姓的大旗，所以要非仁绝礼消解各种意识形态，得到一个人类都满意的社会，既被承认的平等。

Confucianism believes that equality comes from human nature, and human nature is good, so human society should also be good, which is proved to be equality; while Taoism believes that equality has achieved good results in the past, then on the basis of the existing equality cognition, the society should develop better now and in the future. However, the Confucian ethical class hindered the development of human beings and became the banner of exploiting the common people by the feudal lords，therefore, it is necessary to eliminate all kinds of ideologies without benevolence, to achieve a society that is satisfactory to all human beings, which is already recognized as equality.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Mo Ling 莫玲==

1.君子坦荡荡，小人长戚戚。

A gentleman is open and poised; while a petty man is unhappy and worried.

The gentleman is calm and at ease, while the small man is always full of anxiety. --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

2.人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然。

The person reflects the earth.The earth reflects heaven. Heaven reflects the Way. And the Way reflects its own nature.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

Men must conform to the earth, earth to heaven, heaven to Tao and Tao to nature.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ngo, Thi Minh Huong==

==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==

1. 经由董仲舒重新解释和发挥的儒教教义，十分重视礼仪制度的建设，特别是其中祭天、祭祖的礼仪制度建设。完备而复杂的礼仪制度有助于人们养成遵守秩序、安分守己的习惯，这正是儒教重视礼仪的重要目的之一。

Dong Zhongshu's reinterpretation of Confucian doctrines attached great importance to the construction of ritual system, especially that of offering sacrifices to heaven and ancestors. A complete and complex ritual system helps people to develop the habit of abiding by order and bahaving properly, which is one of the important purposes for Confucianism to emphasize rites.

Dong Zhongshu's reinterpretation of Confucian doctrines attached great importance to the construction of ritual system, especially that of offering sacrifices to heaven and ancestors. A complete and complex ritual system helps people to develop the habit of abiding by order and conducting themselves, which is one of the important purposes for Confucianism to emphasize rites.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 道家以道为世界的本原，以柔弱因循为道的作用，在政治上主张无为而治，因为对道和无为的理解不同，所以内部又划分为不同派别，不同的学派之间思想重心也不同，或偏于治国，或偏于治身等。

Daoists regard Tao as the origin of the world. In politics, they uphold that Tao is to conform to the nature and advocated governing by doing nothing. According to the understanding of Tao and doing nothing, there are different denominations of Daoism focusing on different thoughts, some of which focus on governing and some on self-cultivation.--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 09:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==

1.儒家原先是先秦诸子百家之一，其创始人是孔子。儒家在先秦时期和诸子百家地位平等。而后汉武帝为了维护封建专制统治，听从董仲舒"罢黜百家，独尊儒术"的建议，对思想实施钳制，使儒家重新兴起。

Confucianism was originally one of the hundred schools of pre-Qin scholars, whose founder was Confucius. In the pre-Qin period, Confucianism had equal status with all scholars. In order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's suggestion of "removing a hundred schools of thought and respecting Confucianism", and imposed a restraint on ideology, which revived Confucianism.

2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。

Among the five major religions in my country, Taoism is the only religion that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese, so it is also called a local religion. Taoism had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of our country in ancient times, and it is one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.

==Phyo, Su Kyi==
1-儒家通过等级制度的传播而传播。这种宗教是由于中国人对邻国的影响而传承的。儒家思想从其在山东的地盘传到了中国的北部和南部地区。

Confucianism diffused through hierarchical diffusion. This religion was passed on through the Chinese's influence on their neighboring countries. Confucianism spread from its hearth in the Shandong province into China's northern and southern territories.

2-道教或道教是中国血统的哲学传统，强调与道家和谐相处。道是大多数中国哲学流派的基本思想。然而，在道教中，它表示的原则是存在的一切的来源，模式和实质。

Taoism, or Daoism, is a philosophical tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao. The Tao is a fundamental idea in most Chinese philosophical schools; in Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists. --[[User:Phyo Su Kyi 1|Phyo Su Kyi 1]] ([[User talk:Phyo Su Kyi 1|talk]]) 08:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Su kyi

==Pingki, Tanchangya==
1. 孔子出生于2500年前。孔子是17世纪的耶稣会传教士，他称他为孔子。
Confucius was born over 2,500 years ago. Confucius was the Jesuit missionaries of the 17th century who called him Confucius and this latinate name has since become known to the west.

2. 儒家思想是中国古代的一种信仰体系，即人类从根本上讲是善良，可教和可改进的。
Confucianism is an ancient Chinese belief system that human beings are fundamentally good and teachable and improvable.

3. 道教是中国两种伟大的本土哲学传统之一。老子，准子和道教描述了自汉末以来各种所谓的“宗教”运动。
Daoism is one of the two great indigenous philosophical traditions in China. Laozi, Zhunzi and Daojiao describe various so-called "religious" movements since the end of Han Dynasty.

4. 道教甚至没有说出一位开国思想家所建立的传统，甚至是通过一个共同的信念，即一位名叫老子的老师创立了这所学校并写下了它的主要著作，称为道德经，有时也被称为老子。
Daoism does not name a tradition constituted by a founding thinker even through the common belief is that a teacher named Laozi originated the school and wrote it's major work, called the Daodejing， sometimes known as the Laozi.--[[User:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4]] ([[User talk:PINGKI TANCHANGYA 4|talk]]) 13:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Qu Miao 瞿淼==

==Rajabov, Anushervon==

1. Confucius is regarded as a great philosopher and a great sage of ancient China.

孔子是中国古代的伟大哲学家和圣贤。

2. Confucianism, a major official system of thought in China, originated from the teachings of Confucius.

儒家思想是中国的主要官方思想体系，它源于孔子的教.

3. Daoism has a god for almost everything: the sun, the moon, stars, wind, rain, thunder, lightening, mountains and rivers.

道教几乎所有的事物都有上帝-太阳，月亮，星星，风，雨，雷声，闪电，山脉和河流。

4. Daoism was also associated with alchemy, which was at one time a practical way of seeking the elixir of life by the transmutation of base matter into gold.

道教还与炼金术有关，炼金术曾经是一种通过将基础物质转化为黄金来寻求生命之药的实用方法。--[[User:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10]] ([[User talk:RAJABOV ANUSHERVON 10|talk]]) 12:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Seydou, Sagara==
1Confucianism is often characterized as a system of social and ethical philosophy rather than a religion. In fact, Confucianism built on an ancient religious foundation to establish the social values, institutions, and transcendent ideals of traditional Chinese society.
2 Confucius father died when he was too young and he was teaching moral and physical training.
3 Daoism is a philosophy, a religion, and a way of life that arose in the 6th century BCE in what is now the eastern Chinese province of Henan. It has strongly influenced the culture and religious life of China and other East Asian countries ever since.
1儒教通常被描述为一种社会和伦理哲学体系，而不是一种宗教体系。实际上，儒家思想建立在古老的宗教基础上，旨在确立中国传统社会的社会价值观，制度和超越理想.
2孔子的父亲在年纪轻轻的时候就去世了，当时他正在教道德和体育锻炼.
3道教是公元前6世纪在现在的中国东部河南省兴起的一种哲学，一种宗教和一种生活方式. 从那以后，它对中国和其他东亚国家的文化和宗教生活产生了深远的影响.

==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==

==Si Yu 司妤==

1.在汉代的儒家思想普及过程中，很多社会问题得到解决。儒家思想倾向于施用仁政管理国家，政治家们以此为根据，限制土地过分集中，建立完善的道德体系。

Many social issues were settled during the popularization of Confucianism in the Han Dynasty. Confucianism claimed benevolent governance in managing the country, according to which politicians limited the centralization of lands and built a comprehensive moral system.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 06:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

During the popularization of Confucianism in the Han Dynasty, many social problems were resolved. Confucianism tended to use benevolent governance to manage the country. Politicians used this as a basis to limit the excessive concentration of land and establish a sound moral system. --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道家认为过去平等已经有很好的发展成果，那么在现有的平等认知基础上现在以及未来社会应该发展的更好才是，但是儒家礼教阶层阻碍了人类发展并成为窃国诸侯剥削百姓的大旗，所以要非仁绝礼消解各种意识形态，得到一个人类都满意的社会，既被承认的平等。

Taoism proposed that equality had gained fine development in the past, on which equality in contemporary and future society should have a better development. But Confucianism’s feudalism and ethical codes hindered the human growth and became the banner of theft and exploitation of the people by the vassals, so it is necessary to dissolve the various ideologies of non-benevolence and ritual to get a society that is satisfactory to all human beings, namely, recognized equality.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 06:55, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==

1. 董仲舒提出“春秋大一统”和“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”，强调以儒家思想为国家的哲学根本，杜绝其他思想体系。汉武帝采纳了他的主张。从此儒学成为正统思想，研究四书五经的经学也成为了显学。此时，孔子已死三百余年。董仲舒在具体的政策上将道家，阴阳家和儒家中有利于封建帝王统治的部分加以发展，形成了新儒家思想。

Dong Zhongshu proposed the "Great Unification of the Spring and Autumn Period" and the "Dismissal of the Hundred Schools and Exclusive Respect for Confucianism", emphasizing Confucianism as the philosophical foundation of the state and the elimination of other systems of thought. Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty adopted his ideas. From then on, Confucianism became the orthodoxy, and the study of the Four Books and Five Classics became a prominent school. At this time, Confucius had been dead for more than 300 years. Dong Zhongshu developed the parts of Taoism, Yin and Yang and Confucianism that were beneficial to the rule of the feudal emperor in his specific policies, forming Neo-Confucianism.

Dong Zhongshu proposed the "Great Unification of the Nation" and the "Dismissal of the Hundred Schools and Exclusive Respect for Confucianism", emphasizing Confucianism as the philosophical foundation of the state and the elimination of other systems of thought. Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty adopted his ideas. From then on, Confucianism became the orthodoxy, and the study of the Four Books and Five Classics became a prominent school. At this time, Confucius had been dead for more than 300 years. Dong Zhongshu developed the parts of Taoism, Yin and Yang School and Confucianism that were beneficial to the rule of the feudal emperor in his specific policies, forming Neo-Confucianism.--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2. “道”是中国古代哲学的重要范畴，用以说明世界的本原、本体、规律或原理。在中国哲学史上，“道”这一范畴为道家首先提出。道的原始涵义指道路、坦途，以后逐渐发展为道理，用以表达事物的规律性。这一变化经历了相当长的历史过程。春秋后期，老子最先把道看作是宇宙的本原和普遍规律，成为道家的创始人。以后，在不同的哲学体系中其涵义虽有不同，但基本上成为世界本原、本体、规律或原理的代名词。

"Tao" is an important category in ancient Chinese philosophy, which is used to describe the origin, essence, law or principle of the world. In the history of Chinese philosophy, the category of "Tao" was first introduced by the Taoists. The original meaning of Dao refers to the path, the straight path, and later it gradually developed into reason, which is used to express the regularity of things. This change has gone through a rather long historical process. In the late Spring and Autumn period, Laozi first regarded Tao as the origin and universal law of the universe and became the founder of Taoism. Later, although its meaning differs in different philosophical systems, it basically became a synonym for the origin of the world, the essence, the law or the principle.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 03:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Bei 汤蓓==

1.孔子于公元前551年出生于现在的山东省，是中国古代著名的哲学家、政治家和教育家，也是儒家思想的创始人，“仁”和“礼”是其两大核心思想。孔子的儒家思想对中国和周边国家及地区乃至世界都有着深远的影响。2004年中国政府为了向外推广给汉语和传播中国文化，在海外建立了第一所“孔子学院”。

Confucius was born in 551 B.C. in the place where it is in Shangdong province now. He was a famous philosopher, statesman, educator in ancient China, and also the founder of Confucianism. “Humaneness” and “rites” are two of his core thoughts. Confucianism has had far-reaching influence on China, the surrounding countries and areas, and even the whole world. And in 2004, the Chinese government established the first Confucius Institute overseas for the purpose of promoting Chinese language and publicizing Chinese culture.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucius was born in 551 B.C. in what is now Shandong Province. He was a famous philosopher, statesman and educator in ancient China, and the founder of Confucianism, of which "benevolence" and "rites" are the two core ideas. In 2004, the Chinese government established the first Confucius Institute overseas in order to promote the Chinese language and culture abroad.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

2.老子是中国古代著名的思想家、哲学家，是道家思想的创始人，也是世界百位历史名人之一。《道德经》是老子唯一的著作。朴素辩证法是老子哲学思想的精髓，而“无为”是其政治思想核心。即使在21世纪的今天，大至国家大家，小到个人的行为处事，老子的思想依然对社会有着深远的影响。

As the founder of Taoism, Laozi was a philosopher and thinker in ancient China, and he is one of the world’s 100 great eminent figures in history. Naive Dialectic is the essence of Laozi’s philosophical ideas, while non-action is the core of his political thoughts. Even in the 21th century, his thoughts still have pervasive influence on socirties, from such important things as state affairs to such trivial things as individual styles.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Lao Tzu is a famous thinker and philosopher in ancient China, the founder of Taoist thought, and one of the world's 100 most famous historical figures. The Tao Te Ching is the only work of Laozi. The simple dialectic is the essence of Laozi's philosophical thought, and "Wu Wei" is the core of his political thought. Even in the 21st century, Laozi's thoughts still have a profound influence on society, from the national level to individual behavior.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:33, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==

孔子主张“为政以德”，用道德和礼教来治理国家是最高尚的治国之道。这种治国方略也叫“德治”或“礼治”。

Confucius advocated "to govern the country with morality". It is the noblest way to govern the country with morality and ethics. This strategy is also called "rule by virtue" or "rule by rites".--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

无为、不争，是老子对君王的告诫，不与民争利。

Letting things take their own course and no fight for profits with the people. are the admonition of Laozi to the emperors and lords.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:25, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wang Meiling 王美玲==

1.儒家思想指的是儒家学派的思想，由春秋末期思想家孔子所创立。孔子创立的儒家学说在总结、概括和继承了夏、商、周三代尊尊亲亲传统文化的基础上形成的一个完整的思想体系。

Confucianism refers to the thought of Confucianism, which was founded by the thinker Confucius in the late Spring and Autumn period. The Confucianism established by Confucius is a complete ideological system based on the summary, generalization and inheritance of the traditional culture of respecting relatives in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 07:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucianism refers to the thoughts of Confucianism, which was founded by Confucius，the thinker, in the late Spring and Autumn period. The Confucianism established by Confucius is a complete ideological system based on the summary, generalization and inheritance of the traditional culture of respecting relatives in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 07:04, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道家的起源，可以一直追溯到春秋战国时期。道家思想的形成是以总结、发展、写著典籍为主要路径，每一次思想的跳跃都经历了极其长时间的众人积累，这也再一次的凸显了道家的生命力。

The origin of Taoism can be traced back to the spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. Taoist thought is formed with summary, development, and writings of classics as the main path. Every leap of thought has experienced an extremely long time of mass accumulation, which once again highlights the vitality of Taoism.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 07:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The origin of Taoism can be traced back to the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. Taoism is formed with summary, development, and writings of classics as the main path. Every leap of thought has experienced an extremely long time of mass accumulation, which highlights the vitality of Taoism once again.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 13:43, 20 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 13:43, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

==Wang Xuan 王轩==
1. 孔子创立了以仁为核心的道德学说，他自己也是一个很善良的人，富有同情心，乐于助人，待人真诚、宽厚。“己所不欲，勿施于人”、“君子成人之美，不成人之恶”、“躬自厚而薄责于人”等等，都是他的做人准则。

Confucius founded the moral theory with benevolence as the core. He was also a very kind person, full of compassion, willing to help others, sincere and generous. "Don't do to others what you don't want to do to others", "the beauty of a gentleman, the evil of a man who is not a man", "bow oneself to thick and thin blame to others", and so on, are his principles of conduct.

Confucius founded the moral theory with benevolence as the core. He himself was also a very kind person full of compassion who is willing to help others with sincerity and generousity. "Don't do to others what you don't want to do to others", "the beauty of a gentleman, the evil of a man who is not a man", "bow oneself to thick and thin blame to others", and so on, are his principles of conduct.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 07:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 新中国成立后，通过宗教制度民主改革，中国道教获得了新生，逐渐走上了与社会主义社会相适应的道路。改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。

After the founding of the people's Republic of China, through the democratic reform of the religious system, Chinese Taoism gained a new life and gradually embarked on the road to adapt to the socialist society. Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the party and the government's religious policy in the new period, Chinese Taoism has shown an unprecedented new atmosphere, and has made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

After the founding of the people's Republic of Chin, Chinese Taoism has gained a new life and gradually embarked on the road to adapt to the socialist society through its democratic reform of the religious system. Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the Party and the Chinese Government's religious policy in the new period, Chinese Taoism has shown an unprecedented new atmosphere, and has made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 07:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Qiong 吴琼==

1. 孔子创建了对中国及其周边国家具有深远影响的儒家学派。他学而不厌,海人不倦,首开私人讲学,是中国历史上致力于教育事业的第一人。
Confucius founded the school of Confucianism, which had a profound influence on China and its neighboring countries. He was the first person in Chinese history to devote himself to the cause of education, as he never tired of learning and never tired of the sea.

Confucius founded the school of Confucianism, profoundly influencing China and its neighboring countries. He was the first Chinese throughout history to devote himself to the cause of education, for never being tired of learning and teaching. --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 08:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

1.孔子创建了对中国及其周边国家具有深远影响的儒家学派。他学而不厌,诲人不倦,首开私人讲学,是中国历史上致力于教育事业的第一人。
Confucius founded the school of Confucianism, which had a profound impact on China and its neighboring countries. He was the first person in Chinese history dedicating himself to the cause of education, as he never tired of learning and teaching.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:01, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 道家以道为世界的本原，以柔弱因循为道的作用，在政治上主张无为而治，因为对道和无为的理解不同，所以内部又划分为不同派别，不同的学派之间思想重心也不同，或偏于治国，或偏于治身等。
Taoism takes the Tao as the origin of the world, and the role of the Tao is to be soft and follow the path. In politics, Taoism advocates the rule of inaction, and because of the different understanding of the Tao and inaction, it is divided into different schools, and the focus of thought differs between different schools, either favoring the rule of the state, or favoring the rule of the body, etc.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Yilu 吴一露==
1.发愤忘食，乐以忘忧，不知老之将至云尔。

One studies too hard to have meal and indulges himself in knowledge too elated to worry，even failing to .aware the pending oldness.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.一般认为道家思想的特征之一，是通过各种修炼而达到永恒不死的至高完美境界，“因而开创了中医养生学” ；又从炼丹实践中发明了火药，中国四大发明都与道教有关。

Generally, it is believed that one of the features of Taoism is to reach the ultimate perfect of immortality through various ways of practice. So the science of health maintenance of traditional Chinese medicine was established; in addition, gunpowder originated from alchemy practice, actually, the four ancient Chinese inventions are all related to Taoism.
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==

1.孔子（前 551—前 479）名丘，字仲尼，中国古代著名的思想家、教育家。他生活在天下失序的社会状态中，以济世爱民为己任，赋予天与人以全新的含义，形成了以“仁”为核心，以“礼”为形式的儒家理论体系，力图实现圣君、贤臣、良民的太平盛世的理想。

1.Confucius (551 BC – 479 BC), given name Qiu and capping name Zhongni, was a renowned philosopher and educator in ancient China. Living in a chaotic society, he assumed responsibility of transforming society and caring for the people, and redefined the concepts of Tian (Heaven) and Ren (Humanity). In the end, he developed a set of doctrines now known as Confucianism whose core value is Ren (Humanness / Benevolence) and outward expression is Li (Rituals), to achieve his dream of a peaceful and prosperous society consisting of sage-kings, capable ministers and well-behaved subjects.

2.老子哲学并不是弱者的哲学，他的哲学中充满了力量感。老子认为，水在柔弱宁静中，积聚了强大的力量，可以冲破世界上的一切障碍。

2.Laozi’s philosophy is not for the weak; it gives a strong sense of strength. Laozi believed that weak and calm as it may seem, water collects great strength that helps it break down all barriers.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia

==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==

1.中庸精神随着时间的推移，其价值和重要性必将日益显现出来，这一点已经有所表现。中庸之道是世界上最具有连续性的文化，也是中国众多文化流派中最具有价值的核心精神和观念。

1.With the passage of time, the value and importance of the spirit of the mean will become increasingly apparent, which has already been demonstrated. The Golden Mean is the most continuous culture in the world and the most valuable core spirit and concept among many cultural schools in China.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:48, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

With the passage of time, the value and importance of the spirit of the mean, already demonstrated, will become increasingly apparent. The Golden Mean is the most continuous culture in the world and the most valuable core spirit and concept among many cultural schools in China.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan

2.道教文学艺术就是以宣传道教教义、神仙长生思想以及反映其宗教生活为题材的内容的各种形式的文学艺术作品。文学艺术可以扩大道教的社会影响，进而提高道教的宗教素质。反过来，道教的神仙信仰也给中国文学艺术的发展巨大的影响。

2.Taoist literature and art are literary and artistic works in various forms that promote Taoist doctrines, the thoughts of immortal longevity, and reflect their religious life. Literature and art can expand the social influence of Taoism, thereby improving the religious quality of Taoism. In turn, Taoist belief in immortals has also had a huge impact on the development of Chinese literature and art.--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:48, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

==Xiao Ting 肖婷==
1.儒家思想对中国文化的影响很深。传统的责任感思想、节制思想和忠孝思想，都是它和封建统治结合的结果，因此，儒家思想是连同我们当代在内的主流思想。儒学在中国存在几千年，对于中国的政治、经济等各个方面依然存在巨大的潜在影响。

Confucianism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture。The traditional ideas of responsibility, moderation, and loyalty and filial piety are the result of its combination with feudal rule, and thus Confucianism is the dominant ideology along with our contemporary times. Confucianism has existed in China for thousands of years and still has a huge potential influence on all aspects of Chinese politics and economy.

Confucianism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture. The traditional ideas of responsibility, moderation, and loyalty and filial piety are the result of its combination with feudal rule, and thus Confucianism has been the dominant ideology along with our contemporary times. Confucianism has existed in China for thousands of years and still has maintain a huge potential influence on all aspects of Chinese politics and economy.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2．和谐文化建设是构建社会主义和谐社会的要义之一。中国传统道教文化对中国社会产生了深远的影响。在当今构建和谐社会的进程中,道教文化依然有其独特的存在价值。

The building of a harmonious culture is one of the essentials for building a harmonious socialist society. The traditional Chinese Taoist culture has had a profound influence on Chinese society. In the process of building a harmonious society today, Taoist culture still has its unique value to exist.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

The construction of a harmonious culture is one of the essentials of a harmonious socialist society. Taoist culture, a traditional Chinese culture, has exerted a profound influence on Chinese society. It still embraces unique value in today's building of a harmonious society. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xie Fan 解帆==
1.孔子学院是中外合作建立的非营利性教育机构，致力于适应世界各国（地区）人民对汉语学习的需要，增进世界各国（地区）人民对中国语言文化的了解。

Confucius Institutes are non-profit educational institutions jointly established by China and other countries. They are dedicated to meeting the needs of people in all countries (regions) for Chinese learning and promoting their understanding of Chinese language and culture.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 08:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The Confucius Institute is a non-profit educational institution established through Sino-foreign cooperation, dedicated to meeting the needs of people around the world for Chinese language learning and enhancing their understanding of Chinese language and culture.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象，为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。

Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the religious policies of the CPC and the government in the new era, Taoism in China has shown an unprecedented look and made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, reunification of the country and world peace.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 08:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the reform and opening up, under the guidance of the Party and the government's religious policies in the new era, Chinese Taoism has taken on a new and unprecedented appearance, making positive contributions to the economic development, social harmony, reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jia 徐佳==
1. 孔子去世后，其弟子及再传弟子把孔子及其弟子的言行语录和思想记录下来，整理编成《论语》。该书被奉为儒家经典。

After the death of Confucius, his students wrote down all conversations they had with their teacher and then compiled them into the Analects, which has been regarded as a classic of Confucianism.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

After the death of Confucius, his disciples and re-disciples recorded the words and thoughts of Confucius and his disciples and compiled them into the ''Analects'', which is regarded as a classic of Confucianism.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 《老子》书提出以“道”为核心的哲学思想体系。它以道为宇宙的根本，阐述了道的本质、特点及其运动变化的规律。

The book Laozi establishes a philosophical system of thought with the Tao as its core. It takes Tao as the root of the universe, and explains the nature and characteristics of Tao and its laws of movement and change.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

The book, ''Laozi'', presents a philosophical system of thought with the Tao as its core. It takes Tao as the root of the universe, and explains the nature and characteristics of Tao and its laws of movement and change.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Xu Jing 许静==
因此古儒实际上是在一个礼崩乐坏的时代，努力复兴西周价值的这样一个学派。离开了对西周这一套的分析，我们是没有办法认识古儒的。

Thus ancient Confucianism was in fact a school of thought striving to revive the values of the Western Zhou at a time when rituals and music were in ruins. It can not be fully understood without an analysis of Western Zhou.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

老子说：“上善若水，水善利万物而不争。”水无常形，顺势而为，为而不争，方达所愿。可以削平山川却堵不住流水。“不争先”不是不求上进，而是尊重自然规律，不破坏均衡，不因小失大、迷失自我。

Lao Tzu said, "Water is good for it is good for all things but does not compete." Water has no permanent form. It follows the trend and does not struggle to reach its destination. While it is possible to cut down mountains water can not be blocked. "It is not a matter of not striving for advancement, but of respecting the laws of nature, not destroying the balance, not losing oneself for the sake of minor things.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==

1. 南北朝时期（420一589）是道教进一步充实完善的时代，是道教走上成熟的时代，出现了众多的道教改革家、理论家，他们的活动对后世道教有着重要的影响。

1. The Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420-589) was a time when Taoism was further enriched, a time when Taoism came to maturity and numerous Taoist reformers and theorists emerged, having an important influence on the development of Taoism.

Taoism was further developed and came to maturity in the Southern and Northern Dynastie(420-589) when numerous Taoist reformers and theorists emerged and their activities had an important influence on the development of Taoism.--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

2. 曲阜孔庙为纪念孔夫子而兴建，千百年来屡毁屡建，到今天已经发展成超过100座殿堂的建筑群。

2. The Confucius Temple in Qufu was built to commemorate Confucius, which has been destroyed and built again and again over the centuries. Today, it has grown into a building complex of over 100 palaces today.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The Confucius Temple in Qufu was built to commemorate Confucius, which has been destroyed and rebuilt again and again over the past centuries. Today, it has grown into a building complex of over 100 palaces.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

==Yang Hairong 杨海容==

1.儒家的“德治”主义就是主张以道德去感化教育人。儒家认为，无论人性善恶，都可以用道德去感化教育人。这种教化方式，是一种心理上的改造，使人心良善，知道耻辱而无奸邪之心。
The Confucian "rule of virtue" doctrine advocates the use of morality to influence and educate people. Confucianism believes that no matter what human nature is good or bad, morality can be used to influence and educate people. This way of enlightenment is a kind of psychological transformation, making people good-hearted, knowing the shame and not being evil.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucian doctrine of "rule of virtue" advocates the use of morality to influence and educate people. Confucianism believes that no matter what human nature is, good or evil, morality can be used to influence and educate people. This way of enlightenment is a kind of psychological transformation, making people kind-hearted and knowing the shame but not being evil.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.“己所不欲，勿施于人”、“躬自厚而薄责于人” 等，都是孔子的做人准则。
"Do not do to others what you do not want to do to others", "self-respect and responsibilities to others" are all Confucius’s principles of life.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

"Do not do to others what you do not want to do to yourself" and "self-respect and responsibilities to others" are both Confucius's codes of conduct.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

3.认为天地万物都有"道"而派生，即所谓"一生二，二生三，三生万物"，社会人生都应法"道"而行，最后回归自然。
It is believed that all things in heaven and earth are derived from "Tao", which is the so-called "One life two, two life three, three life all things", social life should follow the law "Tao" and finally return to nature.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 03:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

It is believed that all things in heaven and earth are derived from "Tao", which is the so-called "Two in one, three in two, three in all". Social life should all follow the law "Tao" and finally return to nature.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Hui 阳慧==
1.孔子追求的“礼”，是西周时的等级名分制度。为了实现“礼”，孔子进一步提出了“正名”的主张。

Confucius's pursuit of " rites " is the Western Zhou Dynasty hierarchy system.In order to realize the " rites ", Confucius further put forward the " rectification of name ".

The "ritual" pursued by Confucius was the hierarchical system of the Western Zhou Dynasty. In order to realize "li", Confucius further proposed the idea of "rectification of name".--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 13:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.改革开放以来，在党和政府新时期宗教政策的指导下，中国道教呈现出前所未有的新气象,为促进经济发展、社会和谐、祖国统一和世界和平做出了积极贡献。

Since the reform and opening-up, under the guidance of the religious policies of the Party and the government in the new period, Chinese Taoism has taken on an unprecedented new look and made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the introduction of reform and opening-up, under the guidance of the religious policies of the Party and the government in the new period, Chinese Taoism has taken on an unprecedented new look and made positive contributions to promoting economic development, social harmony, the reunification of the motherland and world peace.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 07:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Yue 杨悦==

1、孔子是中国思想史上第一个把道德作为做人和治国首要条件和最高标准提出来的哲人。道德的核心是仁。儒家提倡人与人之间的仁和礼。今天，在中国和其他许多国家，儒学的研究正在迅速增长。

Confucius was the first philosopher in China's ideological history to propose moral standards as the prior criterion for man's behaviour and governing a country.The core of morality is benevolence. Confucianism advocates benevolence and courtesy among people. Today, in China and many other countries, the study of Confucianism is rapidly growing.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucius was the first philosopher in the history of Chinese thought to put morality as the primary and highest standard for being a man and governing a country. The core of morality is benevolence. Confucianism advocates benevolence and etiquette among people. Today, in China and many other countries, the study of Confucianism is growing rapidly. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:04, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

2、道教是中国固有的一种宗教，距今已有1800余年的历史。它深深扎根于中华沃土之中，具有鲜明的中国特色,并对中华文化的各个层面产生了深远影响。

Taoism, an inherent religion of China, has a history of over 1800 years. It is deeply rooted in the Chinese fertile soil with distinct Chinese characteristics, and have a profound impact on all levels of Chinese culture.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism is a religion inherent in China, with a history of more than 1,800 years. It is deeply rooted in the fertile soil of China, with distinctive Chinese characteristics, and a profound impact on overall Chinese culture. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:04, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==

孔子在卫国住了约10个月，因有人在卫灵公面前进谗言，卫灵公对孔子起了疑心，派人公开监视孔子的行动，因此孔子带弟子离开卫国，打算去陈国。

Confucius lived in Wei State for about 10 months. Due to someone advancing slander in front of Duke Ling of Wei, he became suspicious of Confucius and sent people to publicly monitor Confucius. Therefore, Confucius led his disciples to leave Wei and planned to go to Chen State. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

道教继承和发展了先秦道家思想，将“道”作为最高信仰，从中演化出最高经典，最上道术及最高的神灵，构建了庞大的经典道术神仙体系。

Daoism inherited and developed Taoism thought in the pre-Qin period, taking "Dao" as the highest belief, evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Daoism and the supreme gods, and building a huge system of classic Daoism gods. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

1. Confucius stayed in Wei for about 10 months, but when someone slandered him in front of Duke Weiling, he became suspicious of Confucius and sent people to monitor his movements openly. Therefore, Confucius left Wei with his disciples to Chen.

2. Inheriting and developing the pre-Qin dynasty Taoist thought, it holds “Tao” as the highest belief, evolving the highest classics, the highest Taoist arts and the highest deities, forming a huge system of classical Taoist arts and deities.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

==Yi Zichu 义子楚==

==You Yuting 游雨婷==

1.在长期的教学实践活动中，孔子积累和总结了很多教学经验。他主张因材施教，根据学生的不同特点分别指导。

In the long-term teaching practice, Confucius has accumulated and summarized a lot of teaching experience. He advocated teaching students in accordance with their aptitude and instructing them separately according to their different features.

In the long-term teaching practice activities, Confucius has accumulated and summed up a lot of teaching experience. He advocates teaching students in accordance with their aptitude and guiding students according to their different characteristics.--[[User:ANNA GROSHEVA|ANNA GROSHEVA]] ([[User talk:ANNA GROSHEVA|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

2.作为一种宗教实体，道教不仅有其独特的经典教义、神仙信仰和仪式活动，而且还有其宗教传承、教团组织、科戒制度、宗教活动场所。

As a religious entity, Taoism not only has its unique classical doctrine, immortal belief and ritual activities, but also has its religious inheritance, organization of religious groups, system of discipline and places for religious activities.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yu Ni 余妮==
1.孔子的经济思想最主要的是重义轻利、“见利思义”的义利观与“富民”思想。这也是儒家经济思想的主要内容，对后世有较大的影响。

The most important economic thought of Confucius is the value of justice over profit, the view of righteousness and benefit, and the thought of enriching the people. This is also the main content of Confucian economic thought, which has great influence on later generations.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 06:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucius'economic thought mainly consists of the concept of justice and benefit, the concept of justice and benefit and the thought of enriching the people.--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道教哲学和宗教已经渗透到所有受中国影响的亚洲文化中，尤其是越南、日本和韩国的文化。在受中国文化影响的地区，各种宗教习俗让人想起道教，这表明他们与中国游客和移民的早期接触还没有被阐明。

Daoist philosophy and religion have found their way into all Asian cultures influenced by China, especially those of Vietnam, Japan, and Korea. Various religious practices reminiscent of Daoism in such areas of Chinese cultural influence indicate early contacts with Chinese travelers and immigrants that have yet to be elucidated.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 06:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Daoist philosophy and religion have infiltrated all Asian cultures influenced by China, especially those of Vietnam, Japan, and Korea. Various religious practices reminiscent of Daoism in such areas of Chinese cultural influence indicate early contacts with Chinese travelers and immigrants that have yet to be elucidated.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

解放前的道教中充满着浓厚的封建气息，对广大道教徒进行爱国主义教育，改革宫观封建经济，废除道教中的封建残余，与反动会道门划清界限，成为道教在新中国面临的重大任务。

Taoism before liberation was represents strong feudal atmosphere. It became a major task for Taoism in New China to carry out patriotic education for the majority of Taoists, reform the feudal economy of the palace, abolish the remnants of feudalism in Taoism, and draw a clear line with the reactionary Taoist doors.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism before liberation was in strong feudal atmosphere. Therefore, it became a major task for Taoism in New China to carry out patriotic education for the majority of Taoists, reform the feudal economy of the palace, abolish the remnants of feudalism in Taoism, and draw a clear line with the reactionary Taoist doors.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

孔子，姓孔，名丘，字仲尼，公元前551年，出生于春秋后期的鲁国。

Confucius is known as Kong Qiu, a combination of his surname and his given name, and he is also named as Zhongni, which is his courtesy name.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Liang 曾良==
1.儒教是孔子所创立、孟子所发展、荀子所集其大成，之后延绵不断，为历代儒客推崇，至今仍有一定生命力的学术流派。
Confucianism is an academic school which was founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and epitomized by Xuncius. It has continued to be admired by scholars of Confucianism and remined vitality until today.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucianism is an academic school which was founded by Confucius, developed by Mencius, and epitomized by Xuncius. It has been further developed and admired by scholars of Confucianism in all ages and still has vitality at present.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。
Among the five major religions in our country, Taoism is the only one that originated in China and was founded by Chinese, so it is also called a local religion of China.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:59, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==

儒家在先秦时期和诸子百家地位平等。而后汉武帝为了维护封建专制统治，听从董仲舒"罢黜百家，独尊儒术"的建议，对思想实施钳制，使儒家重新兴起。
Confucianism had equal status with other schools of thought in the pre Qin period. In order to maintain the feudal autocratic rule, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty followed Dong Zhongshu's suggestion of "deposing hundreds of schools of thought and respecting Confucianism alone", so as to reinvigorate Confucianism.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。
Among the five major religions in China, Taoism is the only religion originated in China and founded by Chinese people, so it is also known as local religion.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Hui 张慧==

1.身处乱世的孔子所主张的仁政没有施展的空间，但在治理鲁国的三个月中，使强大的齐国也畏惧孔子的才能，足见孔子无愧于杰出政治家的称号。

The benevolent government advocated by Confucius in troubled times has no room for display, but during the three months of ruling Lu State, the powerful Qi State also feared Confucius’ talents, which shows that Confucius deserves the title of outstanding statesman.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the troubled times, Confucius' benevolent rule had no room to be exercised, but in the three months he ruled the state of Lu, he made even the powerful state of Qi fear Confucius' talent, which shows that Confucius deserves the title of outstanding statesman.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In the troubled times, Confucius' benevolent rule had no room to give free play, but during the three months he governed the state of Lu, his talent made even the powerful state of Qi fear, which serves to show that Confucius deserves the title of outstanding statesman.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道教继承和发展了先秦道家思想，将“道”作为最高信仰，从中演化出最高经典，最上道术及最高的神灵，构建了庞大的经典道术神仙体系。

Taoism inherited and developed Taoism thought in the pre-Qin period, taking "Tao" as the highest belief, and evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Taoism and the highest gods, and building a huge system of classic Taoism gods.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism inherited and developed Taoist thought from the pre-Qin dynasty, taking "Tao" as the highest belief, evolving from it the highest classics, the highest Taoist arts and the highest deities, and building a huge system of classical Taoist deities.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Ling 张玲==

1. 孔子63岁时，曾这样形容自己：“发愤忘食，乐以忘忧，不知老之将至。”当时孔子已带领弟子周游列国9个年头，历尽艰辛，不仅未得到诸侯的任用，还险些丧命，但孔子并不灰心，仍然乐观向上，坚持自己的理想，甚至是明知其不可为而为之。

When Confucius was 63 years old, he used to describe himself as, "(One is) so engrossed in his studies that he forgets to have his meals on time; so cheerful that he forgets all his worries; so youthful that he forgets his actual age." At that time, Confucius had guided his disciples to travel around the various states and nations for nine years. He had not been appointed by the feudal lord, but he almost died. However, he was not disheartened. He was still optimistic and insisted on his ideal even he knew it was impossible. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

When Confucius was 63 years old, he used to describe himself as, "(One is) so engrossed in his studies that he forgets to have his meals on time; so cheerful that he forgets all his worries; so youthful that he forgets his actual age." At that time, Confucius had guided his disciples to travel around the various states and nations for nine years. He had not been appointed by the feudal lord, and even almost died. However, he was not disheartened. He was still optimistic and insisted on his ideal even he knew it was impossible.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 06:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2. 作为中华文化最重要的两翼，道家和儒家的关系比较复杂，它们之间有互相学习的一面，也有互相对立的一面。

As the two most important components of Chinese culture, Daoism and Confucianism have a complicated relationship, with both learning from each other and opposing each other. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

As the two most important wings of Chinese culture, Taoism and Confucianism have a complex relationship. Specifically, they are mutually reinforcing and antagonistic.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
道教是中国的本土宗教，道教主张天人合一，东汉末年出现大量的道教组织。

Taoism is China's indigenous religion advocating the unity of heaven and man.The end of the Eastern Han Dynasty appeared a large number of Taoist organizations.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism is an indigenous religion of China and it advocates the unity of heaven and man. A large number of Taoist organizations appeared in the late Eastern Han Dynasty. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

儒学思想，是先秦诸子百家学说之一。儒学文化是以儒家学说为指导思想的文化宗派，为春秋时期孔丘所创。

Confucianism is one of the schools of thought in the pre-Qin dynasty. Confucianism is a school of culture guided by Confucianism. It was created by Confucius in the Spring and Autumn Period.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucianism is one of the schools of thought in the pre-Qin periods. Confucian culture is a cultural sect with Confucianism as its guiding ideology, created by Confucius during the Spring and Autumn Period. --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:19, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucianism is one of the schools of thought in the pre-Qin periods. Confucian culture is guided by Confucianism and created by Confucius during the Spring and Autumn Period.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==
1. 现存《仪礼》十七篇，便是由孔子及弟子将活态的典礼仪式转换成凝固态文本的成果。为了突出主要线索，避免枝蔓，宫室形制、服饰裁剪、礼器使用等诸多细节每每被省略，这对当时的读者不会造成阅读障碍。这一次转换是《仪礼》成书的缘起，与孔壁中经一样，旨在保存文化，希冀借助文本形式传于后世。

1. The existing 17 "rituals" are the result of Confucius and his disciples transforming the living rituals into solidified texts. In order to highlight the main clues and avoid omitting many details such as branches and tendrils, palace shape, clothing cutting, ritual vessel use, etc., this will not cause dyslexia to the readers at that time. This transformation is the origin of the completion of Yili, which, like Kongbi Zhongjing, aims to preserve culture and hopes to pass it on to later generations in the form of text.

2. 道家所主张的“道”，是指天地万物的本质及其自然循环的规律。自然界万物处于经常的运动变化之中，道即是其基本法则。就是关于“道”的具体阐述。所以，人的生命活动符合自然规律，才能够使人长寿。这是道家养生的根本观点。

2. The "Tao" advocated by Taoism refers to the essence of all things in the world and the law of their natural circulation. All things in nature are in constant movement and change, and Tao is its basic principle. It is a concrete exposition of "Tao". Therefore, only when people's life activities conform to the laws of nature can they live a long life. This is the fundamental view of Taoist health preservation.
--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 01:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==
1.儒家学派的创始人孔子第一次打破了旧统治阶级垄断教育的局面，变"学在官府"为"有教无类"，使传统文化教育播及到整个民族。因此儒家思想有了坚实的民族心理基础，为全社会所接受并逐步儒化了全社会。

For the first time, Confucius, the founder of the Confucian school, broke the monopoly of education by the old ruling class and changed "study in the government" to "education without class", so that traditional cultural education spread to the entire nation. Therefore, Confucianism has a solid national psychological foundation, accepted by the whole society and gradually Confucianized the whole society.

2.春秋战国时期，老子集古圣先贤之大智慧，形成了道家完整系统的理论，标志着道家思想已经正式成型。

During the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period, Laozi gathered the great wisdom of ancient sages to form a complete and systematic theory of Taoism, marking the formal formation of Taoism.
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yu 张瑜==
1.儒家经书是四书五经，但儒家早期以五经为主，在佛教禅宗的挑战下，宋代程朱理学以四书取代五经的地位。

The Confucian scriptures are the Four Books and Five Classics. However, the early Confucianism was dominated by the Five Classics. Under the challenge of Zen Buddhism, the neo-Confucianism of Song Dynasty replaced the Five Classics with the Four Books.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The Confucian scriptures are the Four Books and Five Classics, but the early Confucianism was dominated by the Five Classics. Under the challenge of Buddhist Zen Buddhism, the Song Dynasty's Cheng-Zhu Theory replaced the status of the Five Classics with the Four Books.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The scriptures of confucianism are the Four Books and Five Classics, in which the majority is the latter one at the prelimetary stage, but then the Four Books got the upper hand under the theory of Chen-zhu in the Song Dynasty.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

2.春秋时期，老子总结了古老的道家思想的精华，形成了道家完整系统的理论，标志着道家思想已经正式成型。道家是对中华哲学、文学、科技、艺术、音乐、养生、宗教等影响最深远的学派。

During the Spring and Autumn Period, Laozi summarized the essence of ancient Taoist thought and formed a complete and systematic theory of Daoism, marking the formal formation of Daoism. Daoism is the school of thought that has had the most profound influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health care and religion.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

During the Spring and Autumn Period, Laozi summarized the essence of ancient Taoist thought and formed a complete and systematic theory of Taoism, marking the formal formation of Taoist thought. Taoism is the school of thought that has had the most profound influence on Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health care and religion.--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==
孔子是中国古代思想家、政治家、教育家，儒家学派创始人。

Confucius is an ancient Chinese thinker, statesman, educator, and founder of the Confucian school.

在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。

Among the five major religions in my country, Taoism is the only religion that originated in China and was founded by the Chinese, so it is also called a local religion。

==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==

1. 孔子是中国著名的思想家、教育家、政治家，与弟子周游列国十四年，晚年修订六经，即《诗》《书》《礼》《乐》《易》《春秋》。

Confucius was a famous Chinese thinker, educator and statesman who traveled around ancient China with his disciples for 14 years and revised the Six Classics in his later years, namely, The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annuals.

2. 庄子的文章，想象奇幻，构思巧妙，多彩的思想世界和文学意境，文笔汪洋恣肆，具有浪漫主义的艺术风格，瑰丽诡谲，意出尘外，乃先秦诸子文章的典范之作。

Zhuangzi's writings are full of fantastical imagination, ingenious ideas, colorful world of thought and literary contexts, and unrestrained writing. They also fall to a romantic artistic style which is magnificent and deceitful, boasting for masterpieces among those in the pre-Qin plutocrats.--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xi 赵茜==
儒学,儒学亦称儒家学说，起源于东周春秋时期，自汉朝汉武帝时期起，成为中国社会的正统思想。

Confucianism, known as Confucian School, originated from Spring and Autumn Period in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty and became orthodox of the society in China since the reign of Hanwu Emperor of the Han Dynasty. --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

在我国五大宗教中，道教是唯一发源于中国、由中国人创立的宗教，所以又被称为本土宗教。

Among the five major religions, Daoism is the only religion which originated from China and was founded by Chinese. Therefore, it was called native religion as well.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==
1.孔子是当时社会上最博学者之一，在世时就被尊奉为“天纵之圣”“天之木铎”，更被后世统治者尊为孔圣人、至圣、至圣先师、大成至圣文宣王先师、万世师表。

Confucius was one of the most knowledgeable people in the society at that time, and he was honored as "the sage of heaven" and "the mudor of heaven" during his lifetime.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:09, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucius was one of the most erudite scholars in society at that time. He was honored as the "Sage of Heaven" and "Wood Duo of Heaven" when he was alive. The most sacred Wenxuan Wang Xianshi, Wanshishishi.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Confucius was one of the most knowledgeable people in the society at that time, and he was honored as "the sage from heaven" and is honored as "the mudor of heaven" nowadays.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 04:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

2.道教对我国古时代的政治、经济和文化都发生过深刻的影响，是统治阶级的三大精神支柱之一。

Taoism has had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of our ancient times and was one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:09, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Taoism had a profound impact on the politics, economy and culture of our country in ancient times, and it is one of the three spiritual pillars of the ruling class.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==

1.孔子是儒家学派创始人，他提出“仁”，具有古典人道主义的性质：主张“礼”，维护周礼这是孔子政治思想中的保守部分。儒家文化后来发展成为中国古代正统文化。

Confucius is the founder of The Confucian school, he proposed "benevolence", with the nature of classical humanitarianism: advocated "rites" and maintained the Rites of Zhou, which is the conservative part of Confucius' political thought. Confucian culture later developed into the orthodox culture of ancient China

2.道家所主张的“道”，是指天地万物的本质及其自然循环的规律。自然界万物处于经常的运动变化之中，道即是其基本法则。

The "Tao" advocated by Taoism refers to the nature of the universe and the law of its natural cycle. Everything in nature is in constant motion and change, and tao is its fundamental law.
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==

==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==

==Zhu Xu 朱旭==
1.孔子的美学思想核心为“美”和“善”的统一，也是形式与内容的统一。孔子提倡“诗教”，即把文学艺术和政治道德结合起来，把文学艺术当作改变社会和政治的手段，陶冶情操的重要方式。并且孔子认为，一个完人，应该在诗、礼、乐修身成性。孔子的美学思想对后世的文艺理论影响巨大。

The core of Confucius’s aesthetic thought is the unity of “beauty” and “Goodness” , as well as the unity of form and content. Confucius advocated “Poetic Education” , that is, the combination of literature and art and political morality, literature and art as a means to change society and politics, an important way to cultivate sentiment. And Confucius thought, a perfect person, should be in poetry, ritual, music self cultivation. Confucius’s aesthetic thought had a great influence on the literary theory of later ages.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.老子思想的核心是道，道的本性即是自然，出于对自然的推崇，老子也很推崇素朴和稚拙。古朴、稚拙作为一种美的形态，在中国古代一直受到人们普遍的赞颂，与此对立的华艳轻浮，历来为人们所蔑视，这一倾向即受到老子思想的影响。古朴、稚拙之外，老子也很推崇恬淡。平淡之美，也为很多人所崇尚，在宋代更成为一种审美风尚。

The core of Lao Zi's thought is "Tao", which essential is nature. Due to his extol the nature, Lao Zi also praise simplicity and naivety. simplicity and naivety, as a type of beauty, always be admired during Chinese ancient time. On its oppsite, extravagance and flippancy Has always been despised by people. this tendency was influenced by Laozi's thought. In addition tosimplicity and naivety, Laotse also highly praised plain. Plain Beauty, also for many people advocate. Moreover in the Song dynasty it become an aesthetic trend.--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:30, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==

==Zubareva, Ekaterina==

1.Confucianism, the way of life propagated by Confucius (6th–5th century BCE) and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia.

儒教，是孔子（公元前6至5世纪）传播的生活方式，其后是中国人传播了两千多年。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

儒家思想由孔子（公元前6-5世纪）传播一种生活方式，中国人已遵循的两千多年。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:22, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

2.Taoism, indigenous religion-philosophical tradition that has shaped Chinese life for more than 2000 years.

道教是一种固有的宗教哲学传统，已经改变了中国2000多年的生活。--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

道教是中国的本土宗教，也是一种哲学传统，影响了中国2000多年。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:22, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

20201215 cultexam 4

2020-12-21T03:06:55Z

Zhang Yinliu: /* Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮英语笔译 202070080620==

===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"

===Zhaozhou Bridge===
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）

In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）

===Luoyang Bridge===
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)

The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)

It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)

There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)

===Lugou Bridge===
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）

The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）

As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）

===Guangji Bridge===
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)

Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)

Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)

There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)

The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)

The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)

Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.

Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.

Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.

Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.

===Terms and expressions===

石拱桥 stone arch bridge

望柱 baluster

桥基 settlement

泄洪 flood discharging

桥墩 pier

抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block

华表Chinese totem pillar

栏杆 balustrade

燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin

启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge

===Questions===

1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?

2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?

3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?

4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?
===Answers===
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.

2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.

3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.

4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

====Milk Tea====

We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!

Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====

Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.

Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====B.The Development of Milk Tea====

Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.

Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.

In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====

====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====

When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.

When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====

The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)

The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.Indian Masala Chai====

Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）

Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====C.Milk Tea and Health====

====1.Advantages====

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.

Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.Disadvantages====

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====References====

1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15

2.《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食

3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》

4.茶颜悦色密码（2020）国企管理,(20)68.

====Terms and Expressions====

Milk tea 奶茶

Spice 香辛料

Rudiment 雏形

Sexytea 茶颜悦色

Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁

Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶

Cholesterol 胆固醇

Hyperglycemia 高血糖

Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原

Maple sugar 枫糖

Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶

Internet celebrity city网红城市

Pecans 碧根果

Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶

Hyperlipidemia 高血脂

Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病

Gastrointestinal 肠胃的

====Questions====

1.What is the origin of milk tea?

Mongolia Milk Tea.

2.Who promoted milk tea?

British colonists.

3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?

Britain.

4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?

Sexytea.

5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?

No.

6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.

7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良- MTI 英语笔译-202070080578==

===Introduction===

Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)

In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)

The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)

There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)

The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges.(Chen Kang 2006,62)

The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three floors hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)

Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)

During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''. This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)

Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)

There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)

Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)

===Terms and Expressions===

Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden 清明上河园

''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' 《清明上河图》

Rainbow Bridge 虹桥

Fuyun Pavillion 浮云阁

Shangshan Gate 上善门

chrysanthemum 菊花

Baogong Salute to Guests 包公迎宾

Spitting Fire Show 气功喷火

Cockfight 斗鸡

Women’s Polo 女子马球

Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty 大宋·东京梦华

===Questions===

1. What is the location of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden?

2. What’s the role of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden in China?

3. When was Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden opened to the public?

4. Who is the painter of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?

5. Which dynasty of the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' present?

6. What does the name of "Fuyun Pavilion" mean?

7. What’s the characteristics of the performance of "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

8. Can you please list some kinds of performance of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden besides "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

===Answers===

1. It is located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province.

2. In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base.

3. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.

4. Zhang Zeduan.

5. Northern Song Dynasty.

6. The name of "Fuyun" has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.

7. It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.

8. Baogong Salute to Guests, Spitting Fire Show, Cockfight, Women’s Polo.

===References===

Chen Kang 陈康. (2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].''集邮博览'' Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.

Gao Jing 高静. (2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty]. ''光彩''Brilliance(04)16-19.

Li Mei 李梅. (2007). 清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development]. ''合作经济与科技'' Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.

Pang Runxin 庞润昕. (2019). 《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival]. ''景德镇陶瓷大学''Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.

Wei Tuo 韦陀. (2006). 张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan]. ''紫禁城'' Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.

Zhang Lu 张璐. (2013). 清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of "Qingming River" Song Dynasty Theme Park]. ''赤峰学院学报'' Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.
--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Batik, Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛202070080579 MTI英语笔译==
===Batik(Lanran)===

Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

===History===

According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.(Liu Haili, 1986,1)

Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. (Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik, Cao Saina, 2020,5）

Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.

===Types===

Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region. （Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

===Technical Process===

Preparation

Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate. （Liao Li, 2012）

Applying wax

Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife.
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dip-dyeing

Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dewaxing

After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（Liao Li, 2012）

===Materials ===

The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.(Liao Li, 2012)

In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.(Liao Li, 2012)

In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （Liao Li, 2012）

===Patterns===

From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns.
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.（Li Xing, 2020,3)

Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value.

Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(Liao Li, 2012）

===Terms and Expressions===

batik 蜡染

laxie 蜡缬

huixie 灰缬

jiaoxie 绞缬

jiaxie 夹缬

Eryi Records 《二仪实录》

The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》

The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》

single-color dyeing 单色染

multi-color dyeing 复色染

Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院

Polygonum 蓼蓝

Polygonaceae蓼科植物

Isatis tinctoria 松蓝

Cruciferae 十字花科

anil 木蓝属植物

leguminous豆科

safflower红花

madder茜草

yellow gardenia黄色栀子

turmeric姜黄

Rhamnus utility冻绿

===Questions and Answers===

1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?

Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.

2. When did batik appear and become popular?

Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.

3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?

Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.

4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.

5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?

Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.

6. How does “ice patterns” appear?

When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".

7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?

Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.

===References===

Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik 百度百科—蜡染 https://baike.baidu.com/item/蜡染/306637?fr=aladdin

Liao Li, 廖利 Batik Art《蜡染艺术》世界大学城 www.worlduc.com

Cao Saina曹赛娜. The Evolution Trend of Chinese Batik and Its Local Activation Method 中国蜡染演化趋势与本土活化方式浅探 China Art College 中国美术学院,2010:5

Li Xing, 李欣. Development and Cultural Connotations of Batik in Guizhou 贵州蜡染发展源流及文化内涵 . Memoir of the first academic seminar of the Education Modernization Professional Committee of the Guangdong Education Society in 2020 广东教育学会教育现代化专业委员会2020年第一次学术研讨会论文集 2020:3.

Liu Haili刘海粟. The History, Current Situation and Development of Batik in Guizhou贵州蜡染的历史、现状及其发展. 贵州师范大学学报(社会科学版),1986,(01):1-6.

==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).Quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Short weapons

The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords.

Long Weapons

The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.

Historical Origins

Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.Quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.

During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.

The meteor hammer

The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.

Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.

Rope Dart

The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.

The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).

Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.

Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.

A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.

These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.

It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!

===B.Terms and Expressions===
greataxe 钺

trident 叉

dagger halberd 戟

spiked mace 殳

soft whip 软鞭

bar mace 锏

dagger axe 戈

rope dart 绳镖
===C.Questions===
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?

Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.

2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?

Answer: The Stone Age weapons.

3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?

Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.

4. How to use a meteor hammer?

Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

1.百度百科

2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.

3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.

4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

[1].百度百科

[2].沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.

[3]."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.

[4].Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲英语笔译 202070080623==

===Terracotta Army===

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑

chariot n. 战车

mausoleum n. 陵墓

Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇

Pit 1 一号坑

Pit 2 二号坑

Pit 3 三号坑

kiln n. 窑

Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹

World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》

===Questions===

1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?

2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?

3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?

4. How the terracotta warriors were made?

5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?

6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?

===Answers===

1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.

2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.

3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future.

4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.

5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

===References===

1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors.

2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.

3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.

4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
'''Penjing'''

Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''A.Categories'''

Penjing generally fall into one of three categories:

Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）

Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''B.History'''

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''C.Techniques and Care'''

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''D. In Other Culture'''

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
*miniature小型的，缩小的
*trimming 修剪
*pruning 剪枝
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代
*pomegranate 石榴
*literali 文人
*clamping 折枝成型

===Question===
*Have you ever raise any plants?
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?

===Answers===
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.
*The Han Dynasty
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.

===References===
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类

[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管

[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋

[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==

===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===

====A. Overview of Douyin and Tik Tok ====
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)

In September 2017, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was launched. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and the content is not shared between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.

What’s more, the mode of both Douyin and Tik Tok is similar. According to Liang’s description of Douyin,“The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second stories.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. (Tian Fengchang, 2020: 15-17) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.

Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spending most of their spare time on the For You Page. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

====B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram ====
As what was mentioned before, Tik Tok or Douyin is somehow similar to Instagram. Despite their alike fundamentals, they have their own distinctive features. Differences between them are as follows:

1. Time limit: Tik Tok currently does not support a long-form video. While IGTV, Instagram’s long-form video feature, allows a video length of up to one hour. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

2. Users: Most Tik Tok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most Tik Tok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)

3. Community: Compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. It allows users to easily connect, build friendships, and collab with each other. Besides, something new and trendy is pushed to the users every week, so as to further increase its attention. Therefore, some creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

====C. Popularity and Effects ====
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Several reasons why Tik Tok is so popular include:

1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy from China, Jimmy Fallon from American, have helped drive Tik Tok's popularity. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

There is no doubt that Tik Tok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a Tik Tok or doing one of the Tik Tok dances. (Wang Ning, 2019: 15-16) Here are some benefits of Tik Tok:

1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of Tik Tok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, Tik Tok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

2. Publicity: With Tik Tok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.

3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on Tik Tok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from Tik Tok. As an engaging platform, Tik Tok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Chinese Red Cross Foundation or intern for companies. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. there are as follows:

1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making users hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later only to find have lost an entire day. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people criticize other people’s videos, while others create videos for deriding someone. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved, thus resulting in life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues. (Tian Xiaofang, 2019)

[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]

===Terms and Expressions===
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音

ByteDance 字节跳动

Short video platforms 短视频平台

Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法

Celebrity endorsements 名人代言

Chinese Red Cross Foundation 中国红十字基金会

Mental health 心理健康

===Questions and Answers===
Q1. What is Tik Tok？

Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?

Q3. Why Tik Tok is so popular around the world?

Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?

Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok?

A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic.

A2: They are two different versions that can be downloaded in different regions -- Douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.

A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing.

A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. Additionally, People can learn new things.

A5: Many worried that Tik Tok is addictive, bad for mental health, and unsafe.

===References===
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019

* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018

* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.

* Tian Fengchang, Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based on Tik Tok][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.

* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.

* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020

* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.

* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.

* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].

* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 202070080649 英语口译==

===Four Buddhist Shrines===

Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity,which ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated and achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)

===Mount Wutai===

Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. It is the ashram of Manjusri Bodhisattva who is the god of wisdom in China. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）

===Mount Putuo===

Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）

===Mount Emei===

Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva who is the god of practice in China. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Just the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(Gan Shude,1998）

===Mount Jiuhua===

Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha who is the god of willings and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. It was initially named Mount Jiuzi and was latter renamed to Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Li Bai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）

===Terms and Expressions===

Buddhist adj.佛教的

Buddhism n.佛教

shrine n.圣地

pullulate v.大量产生

Gold Wutai 金五台

Silver Putuo 银普陀

Copper Emei 铜峨眉

Iron Jiuhua 铁九华

Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨

Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨

Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨

Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨

reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身

ashram n. 修行的住所

Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼

Sarnath n. 鹿野苑

Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶

Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗

Wanghai Peak 望海峰

Yedou Peak 叶斗峰

Guayue Peak 挂月峰

Splendid Peak 锦绣峰

Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰

Xiantong Temple 显通寺

Nanchan Temple 南禅寺

Foguang Temple 佛光寺

The Great White Tower 大白塔

Puji Temple 普济寺

Fayu Temple 法雨寺

Huiji Temple 惠济寺

The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林

Wannian Temple 万年寺

Baoguo Temple 报国寺

Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺

Golden Summit 金顶

Huacheng Temple 化城寺

Tiantai Temple 天台寺

Longevity Palace 百岁宫

Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺

nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai

妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白

===Questions===

1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?

2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?

3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?

4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?

5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet [[Li Bai]]?--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.

2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.

3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.

4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.

5. Mount Putuo.

6. Mount Jiuhua.

===References===

1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.

2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.

3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.

4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html

5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.

--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:05, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==
===Compass===
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as one of the advanced scientific technologies in ancient China, has made great contributions to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity, use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94).

The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)

In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decrease in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)

In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)

Compass, as a tool for guiding the direction, has played an important role in people's daily life and in the navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It is recorded that Qin emperor used a diving board and compass in his royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass led people to believe that the square plate symbolized the earth and the round disc symbolized the heaven. And around the round disc, there engraved the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 constellations (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a superstition, the compass was endowed with the wishful thinking of the people. Nowadays many people still use the concept of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremonies. (China Week 2003,35)

Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass has played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)

The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until the 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)

[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]

===References===
*"FOUR Great Inventions" [四大发明]. ''China's Foreign Trade'' [《中国外贸》].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012).
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China" [指南针——中国四大发明之一]. ''China Week'' [《中华周刊》]. China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003).
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》 [''Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine'']. 武汉：武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan University Press].1995.

===Terms and Expressions===
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子
*lodestone 天然磁石
*south-governor 司南
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮
*Ding Du 丁度
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘
*dry compass 旱罗盘
*Eight Trigrams 八卦
*gimbal 常平架

===Questions===
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature?
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear?
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass?
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass?
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?

===Answers===
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.
*In the Warring States Period.
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==

''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.

===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.

Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his house. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he put many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''
--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. Contents and Themes===
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types:

One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.

In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.

The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types:

One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.

Pu Songling himeself suffered from his repeated failure in the imperial examination. In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. A Typical Story===
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.

Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan Province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Features of the Book===
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.

4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning.

4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

teahouse 茶馆

scholarly family书香世家

imperial examination 科举制度

underworld 阴曹地府

fox spirit 狐妖

salt merchant 盐商

forgetting to be alien 忘为异类

===Questions===

1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?

2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?

3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?

4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.

5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?

6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?

===Answers===
1. Nearly 500.

2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.

3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.

4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.

5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.

6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.

Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

===References===

==Four Main Philosophic Schools-张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 MTI 英语口译==

===Confucianism===

In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and tried to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.

Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatening the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”).

However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaws in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.

In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation could survive whatever disaster it encountered as well. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.

===Taoism or Daoism===

Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on the development of Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively.

First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts (百家争鸣)”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55).

However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor selected Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.

===Legalism===

Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law at its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.

Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishments according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.

===Mohism===

Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the latter contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.

During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.

1. 陈珂均. 先秦四大家看利与义[J]. 中学生天地, 2016(3): 42-43.

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4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.

5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.

6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.

7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.

8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.

9. 初婉琳. 浅析先秦时期的大一统思想——以法家为例[J]. 新西部. 2020(17): 14, 96.

10. 和乐乐. 强国之道的反思:论秦代的法家思想及其走向[J]. 北京印刷学院学报. 2020(6): 58-61.

11. 周宝砚. 墨家民本思想及其当代价值[J]. 学理论. 2020(11): 53-54.

12. 程军. 现代“工匠精神”的传统道家思想来源——基于《庄子》匠人寓言的解读[J]. 理论月刊. 2020(9): 144-153.

13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.

14. 魏义霞. 先秦哲学与中国哲学的源头[J]. 首届“中华传统文化与华夏文明探源”国际论坛论文集. 2018.

--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==

====A. Writing Brush====

Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)

Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)

In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)

Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

====B. Terms and Expressions====

笔锋 the tip of a wring brush

笔杆 pen-holder

宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush

羊毫笔 goat-hair brush

鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush

====C. Questions====

1. What are the four treasures of the study?

2. How long is the history of writing brush?

3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?

4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?

===Answers===

1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.

2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.

3. In the Warring States periods.

4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.

===References===

*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.

*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.

*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.

*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.

==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==

===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===

===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.(Paragraph is too long)--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.

===The Legendary of Nian===

According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.(paragraph is too long)

===Terms and Expressions===

Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海

Yandi 炎帝

Shanhaijing 山海经

Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山

Nüwa 女娃

Eastern Sea 东海

the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟

Zhang River 漳水

The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水

Emperor Yao 尧帝

Nian 年

new year 新年

===Questions===
1.Who is Nüwa?

She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.

2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?

The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.

3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?

Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.
===References===

[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.

[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.

[3]百度百科

[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian.

[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review.

[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168.

--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

==Face Changing in Sichuan Opera - Zhou Yiwen 周艺文 202070080629 英语笔译==

===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===

1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics

Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)

2.The origin and development of face changing

Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)

Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)

It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)

3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu

The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people's perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

4.Crafting materials for facial makeup

As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)

5.Three main types of Lianpu

There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)

===Terms and Expressions===

Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧

Face changing n.变脸

Lian pu 脸谱

Guan Yu 关羽

Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》

Liu Bei 刘备

Cao Cao 曹操

Qin Hui 秦桧

Yan Song 严嵩

Sima Yi 司马懿

Bao Zhenhg 包拯

Li Kui 李逵

Zhang Fei 张飞

Dian Wei 典韦

Pang Juan 庞涓

Xu Shiying 徐世英

Dou Erdun 窦尔敦

Cheng Yaojin 程咬金

Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜

Sun Wukong, 孙悟空

Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王

Peng Denghuai 彭登怀

Andy Lau 刘德华

Wiping Mask 抹脸

Blowing Mask 吹脸

Pulling Mask 扯脸

===Questions===
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?

2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?

3.How long is the history of face changing?

4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?

5.What are the three types of face changes?

===Answers===

1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).

2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.

3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).

4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.

5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.

===References===

Luo Yue 罗玥. (2019). 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术 [On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''戏剧之家'' Home Drama13:29-30.

Wang Huaqing 王华清. (2017). 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征 [Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''设计'' Design

Xiao Yuanjin 萧源锦. (2013). 神奇莫测的川剧变脸 [Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera]. ''文史杂志'' Journal of Literature and History 2: 54-55.

百度百科Baidu Baike

https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml

https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==

===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System.

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:

1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers.

2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates' talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn't have the power of appointment.

3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Nine-Grade Official Selection System, image from Baike. Click [https://baike.baidu.com/pic/%E4%B9%9D%E5%93%81%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%B6/1711003/1/77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f?fr=lemma&ct=single#aid=1&pic=77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f.jpg] for original source.]]

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Terms and Expressions===

Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制

Recommendatory System 察举制

Rectifier 中正官

Senior Rectifier 大中正官

Junior Rectifier 小中正官

Region 州

Commandery 郡

superior-superior 上上

superior-intermediary 上中

superior-inferior 上下

intermediary-superior 中上

intermediary-intermediary 中中

intermediary-inferior 中下

inferior-superior 下上

inferior-intermediary 下中

and inferior-inferior 下下

Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书

Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》

===Questions===

1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

2. What does a Rectifier do?

3. What are the nine ranks?

4. What's the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

===Answers===

1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.

2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.

3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.

4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

===References===

1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.

2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.

3. Deng Zhongping 邓中平. (2010). 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示 [Analysis of ancient Chinese system for selecting officers and enlightenment].西南政法大学 Southwest University of Political Science and Law.

==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632 Major: MTI ==

===Introduction===

From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)

From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)

Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]

The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)

The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]

In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)

In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===

[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]

This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）

This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Swastika lattice===

[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]

Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.

This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Fret lattice===

[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]

Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)

Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The cracked ice lattice===

[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]

The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)

The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The H-shaped Lattice===

[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]

The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)

The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The well-shaped lattice===

[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]

The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)

"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Vocabulary List===

lattice 格心

diamond lattice 菱花

the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花

the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花

a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花

swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花

fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花

the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花

the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花

===Questions===

1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows?

2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples?

3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice?

===Answers===

1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight.

2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples.

3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.

===Reference===

*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.

*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.

*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.

*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.

*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press

*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts

* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review.

* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.

==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 202070080631 MTI==

===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===

As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)

The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system. Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription.(Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020, 18)

Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011, 179)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]

Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012, 409)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]

There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays. Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020, 62)

Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.(Wang Yi, 2019, 106)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.

Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.

Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.

Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).

Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.

Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.

Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411.

Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).

Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy

===Terms and Expressions===
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间

Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗

xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗

Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派

Donglin School 东林党

Zhu Xi 朱熹

Zhou Shi 周式

Zhang Shi 张栻

Qiandao Reign 乾道年间

Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛

Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁

Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭

Yushu Library 御书楼

Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁

Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂

Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂

the Banxue Building 半学斋

the Hexi Platform 赫曦台

===Questions===
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?

2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?

3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?

4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?

5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?

6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?

===Answers===
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).

2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.

3.The Lecture Hall.

4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony.

5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning.

6.It held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.

--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==

===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===

[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55).
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835).
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22).
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.

Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.

*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.

*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.

*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.

*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.

*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.

*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.

*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.

*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.

===Terms and Expressions===
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"

|-

|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱

|-

|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期

|-

|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺

|-

|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树

|-

|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田

|-

|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年

|-

|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子

|}

===Questions===

1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?

2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?

3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?

4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?

5.What achievements did jiaozi make?

6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?

===Answers===
1.Jiaozi.

2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.

3.Merchants.

4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).

5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.

6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.

--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003 - Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===

Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]

[[File: makeup.jpg]]

Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.

It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.

In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.

From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]

Pale skin was and still is a sign of aristocracy in the East. Women literally put white on their face, their skin had to be snow-white, so they often went under umbrellas so as not to tan.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====I.Base make up====

1.Lead powder

In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

2.Rice powder

In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.

“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

====II.Color make up====

If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

1.Blush

Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).Blush in ancient China was bright and rich (this contrasted with white skin), which showed the Almighty that they were healthy and happy.

Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.

[[File: blush.jpg]]

2.Lipsctick

Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.

[[File: lipstick.jpg]]

3.Eyebrows

It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.Eyebrows are a separate and one of the favorite parts of makeup. They had to be clear and black. The women shaved off their eyebrows and then dyed the eyebrows in a thin arc or made them straight. It was customary for warriors to dye their eyebrows in such a way as to give the image a more severe look.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.

In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.

[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]

====III.Tang dynasty make up====

[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]

1.Early Tang Dynasty

The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.

In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.

*White make up

Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

*Red make up

In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.

As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty

After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.

For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.

3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty

After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.

In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.

However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.

The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.

4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times

Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.

Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.

====References====

*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

====Terms and Expressions====

*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.

*胭脂 - rouge

*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick

*黛 - black eyebrow dye

====Questions====

1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?

2.Why is lead powder dangerous?

3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?

4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?

5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?

6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?

====Answers====

1.Rice powder.

2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.

3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.

5.White make up and Red make up.

6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.

20201215 cultexam 4

2020-12-21T03:06:22Z

Zhang Yinliu: /* Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 202070080649 */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮英语笔译 202070080620==

===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"

===Zhaozhou Bridge===
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）

In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）

===Luoyang Bridge===
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)

The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)

It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)

There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)

===Lugou Bridge===
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）

The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）

As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）

===Guangji Bridge===
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)

Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)

Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)

There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)

The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)

The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)

Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.

Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.

Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.

Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.

===Terms and expressions===

石拱桥 stone arch bridge

望柱 baluster

桥基 settlement

泄洪 flood discharging

桥墩 pier

抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block

华表Chinese totem pillar

栏杆 balustrade

燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin

启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge

===Questions===

1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?

2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?

3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?

4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?
===Answers===
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.

2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.

3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.

4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

====Milk Tea====

We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!

Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====

Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.

Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====B.The Development of Milk Tea====

Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.

Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.

In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====

====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====

When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.

When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====

The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)

The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.Indian Masala Chai====

Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）

Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====C.Milk Tea and Health====

====1.Advantages====

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.

Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.Disadvantages====

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====References====

1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15

2.《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食

3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》

4.茶颜悦色密码（2020）国企管理,(20)68.

====Terms and Expressions====

Milk tea 奶茶

Spice 香辛料

Rudiment 雏形

Sexytea 茶颜悦色

Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁

Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶

Cholesterol 胆固醇

Hyperglycemia 高血糖

Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原

Maple sugar 枫糖

Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶

Internet celebrity city网红城市

Pecans 碧根果

Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶

Hyperlipidemia 高血脂

Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病

Gastrointestinal 肠胃的

====Questions====

1.What is the origin of milk tea?

Mongolia Milk Tea.

2.Who promoted milk tea?

British colonists.

3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?

Britain.

4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?

Sexytea.

5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?

No.

6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.

7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良- MTI 英语笔译-202070080578==

===Introduction===

Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)

In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)

The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)

There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)

The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges.(Chen Kang 2006,62)

The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three floors hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)

Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)

During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''. This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)

Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)

There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)

Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)

===Terms and Expressions===

Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden 清明上河园

''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' 《清明上河图》

Rainbow Bridge 虹桥

Fuyun Pavillion 浮云阁

Shangshan Gate 上善门

chrysanthemum 菊花

Baogong Salute to Guests 包公迎宾

Spitting Fire Show 气功喷火

Cockfight 斗鸡

Women’s Polo 女子马球

Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty 大宋·东京梦华

===Questions===

1. What is the location of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden?

2. What’s the role of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden in China?

3. When was Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden opened to the public?

4. Who is the painter of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?

5. Which dynasty of the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' present?

6. What does the name of "Fuyun Pavilion" mean?

7. What’s the characteristics of the performance of "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

8. Can you please list some kinds of performance of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden besides "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

===Answers===

1. It is located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province.

2. In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base.

3. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.

4. Zhang Zeduan.

5. Northern Song Dynasty.

6. The name of "Fuyun" has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.

7. It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.

8. Baogong Salute to Guests, Spitting Fire Show, Cockfight, Women’s Polo.

===References===

Chen Kang 陈康. (2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].''集邮博览'' Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.

Gao Jing 高静. (2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty]. ''光彩''Brilliance(04)16-19.

Li Mei 李梅. (2007). 清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development]. ''合作经济与科技'' Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.

Pang Runxin 庞润昕. (2019). 《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival]. ''景德镇陶瓷大学''Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.

Wei Tuo 韦陀. (2006). 张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan]. ''紫禁城'' Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.

Zhang Lu 张璐. (2013). 清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of "Qingming River" Song Dynasty Theme Park]. ''赤峰学院学报'' Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.
--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Batik, Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛202070080579 MTI英语笔译==
===Batik(Lanran)===

Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

===History===

According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.(Liu Haili, 1986,1)

Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. (Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik, Cao Saina, 2020,5）

Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.

===Types===

Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region. （Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

===Technical Process===

Preparation

Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate. （Liao Li, 2012）

Applying wax

Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife.
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dip-dyeing

Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dewaxing

After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（Liao Li, 2012）

===Materials ===

The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.(Liao Li, 2012)

In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.(Liao Li, 2012)

In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （Liao Li, 2012）

===Patterns===

From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns.
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.（Li Xing, 2020,3)

Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value.

Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(Liao Li, 2012）

===Terms and Expressions===

batik 蜡染

laxie 蜡缬

huixie 灰缬

jiaoxie 绞缬

jiaxie 夹缬

Eryi Records 《二仪实录》

The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》

The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》

single-color dyeing 单色染

multi-color dyeing 复色染

Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院

Polygonum 蓼蓝

Polygonaceae蓼科植物

Isatis tinctoria 松蓝

Cruciferae 十字花科

anil 木蓝属植物

leguminous豆科

safflower红花

madder茜草

yellow gardenia黄色栀子

turmeric姜黄

Rhamnus utility冻绿

===Questions and Answers===

1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?

Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.

2. When did batik appear and become popular?

Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.

3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?

Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.

4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.

5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?

Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.

6. How does “ice patterns” appear?

When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".

7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?

Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.

===References===

Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik 百度百科—蜡染 https://baike.baidu.com/item/蜡染/306637?fr=aladdin

Liao Li, 廖利 Batik Art《蜡染艺术》世界大学城 www.worlduc.com

Cao Saina曹赛娜. The Evolution Trend of Chinese Batik and Its Local Activation Method 中国蜡染演化趋势与本土活化方式浅探 China Art College 中国美术学院,2010:5

Li Xing, 李欣. Development and Cultural Connotations of Batik in Guizhou 贵州蜡染发展源流及文化内涵 . Memoir of the first academic seminar of the Education Modernization Professional Committee of the Guangdong Education Society in 2020 广东教育学会教育现代化专业委员会2020年第一次学术研讨会论文集 2020:3.

Liu Haili刘海粟. The History, Current Situation and Development of Batik in Guizhou贵州蜡染的历史、现状及其发展. 贵州师范大学学报(社会科学版),1986,(01):1-6.

==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).Quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Short weapons

The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords.

Long Weapons

The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.

Historical Origins

Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.Quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.

During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.

The meteor hammer

The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.

Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.

Rope Dart

The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.

The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).

Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.

Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.

A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.

These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.

It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!

===B.Terms and Expressions===
greataxe 钺

trident 叉

dagger halberd 戟

spiked mace 殳

soft whip 软鞭

bar mace 锏

dagger axe 戈

rope dart 绳镖
===C.Questions===
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?

Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.

2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?

Answer: The Stone Age weapons.

3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?

Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.

4. How to use a meteor hammer?

Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

1.百度百科

2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.

3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.

4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

[1].百度百科

[2].沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.

[3]."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.

[4].Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲英语笔译 202070080623==

===Terracotta Army===

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑

chariot n. 战车

mausoleum n. 陵墓

Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇

Pit 1 一号坑

Pit 2 二号坑

Pit 3 三号坑

kiln n. 窑

Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹

World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》

===Questions===

1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?

2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?

3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?

4. How the terracotta warriors were made?

5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?

6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?

===Answers===

1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.

2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.

3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future.

4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.

5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

===References===

1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors.

2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.

3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.

4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
'''Penjing'''

Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''A.Categories'''

Penjing generally fall into one of three categories:

Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）

Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''B.History'''

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''C.Techniques and Care'''

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''D. In Other Culture'''

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
*miniature小型的，缩小的
*trimming 修剪
*pruning 剪枝
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代
*pomegranate 石榴
*literali 文人
*clamping 折枝成型

===Question===
*Have you ever raise any plants?
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?

===Answers===
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.
*The Han Dynasty
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.

===References===
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类

[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管

[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋

[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==

===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===

====A. Overview of Douyin and Tik Tok ====
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)

In September 2017, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was launched. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and the content is not shared between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.

What’s more, the mode of both Douyin and Tik Tok is similar. According to Liang’s description of Douyin,“The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second stories.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. (Tian Fengchang, 2020: 15-17) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.

Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spending most of their spare time on the For You Page. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

====B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram ====
As what was mentioned before, Tik Tok or Douyin is somehow similar to Instagram. Despite their alike fundamentals, they have their own distinctive features. Differences between them are as follows:

1. Time limit: Tik Tok currently does not support a long-form video. While IGTV, Instagram’s long-form video feature, allows a video length of up to one hour. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

2. Users: Most Tik Tok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most Tik Tok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)

3. Community: Compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. It allows users to easily connect, build friendships, and collab with each other. Besides, something new and trendy is pushed to the users every week, so as to further increase its attention. Therefore, some creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

====C. Popularity and Effects ====
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Several reasons why Tik Tok is so popular include:

1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy from China, Jimmy Fallon from American, have helped drive Tik Tok's popularity. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

There is no doubt that Tik Tok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a Tik Tok or doing one of the Tik Tok dances. (Wang Ning, 2019: 15-16) Here are some benefits of Tik Tok:

1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of Tik Tok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, Tik Tok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

2. Publicity: With Tik Tok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.

3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on Tik Tok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from Tik Tok. As an engaging platform, Tik Tok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Chinese Red Cross Foundation or intern for companies. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. there are as follows:

1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making users hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later only to find have lost an entire day. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people criticize other people’s videos, while others create videos for deriding someone. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved, thus resulting in life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues. (Tian Xiaofang, 2019)

[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]

===Terms and Expressions===
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音

ByteDance 字节跳动

Short video platforms 短视频平台

Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法

Celebrity endorsements 名人代言

Chinese Red Cross Foundation 中国红十字基金会

Mental health 心理健康

===Questions and Answers===
Q1. What is Tik Tok？

Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?

Q3. Why Tik Tok is so popular around the world?

Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?

Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok?

A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic.

A2: They are two different versions that can be downloaded in different regions -- Douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.

A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing.

A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. Additionally, People can learn new things.

A5: Many worried that Tik Tok is addictive, bad for mental health, and unsafe.

===References===
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019

* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018

* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.

* Tian Fengchang, Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based on Tik Tok][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.

* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.

* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020

* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.

* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.

* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].

* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 202070080649 英语口译==

===Four Buddhist Shrines===

Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity,which ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated and achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)

===Mount Wutai===

Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. It is the ashram of Manjusri Bodhisattva who is the god of wisdom in China. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）

===Mount Putuo===

Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）

===Mount Emei===

Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva who is the god of practice in China. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Just the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(Gan Shude,1998）

===Mount Jiuhua===

Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha who is the god of willings and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. It was initially named Mount Jiuzi and was latter renamed to Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Li Bai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）

===Terms and Expressions===

Buddhist adj.佛教的

Buddhism n.佛教

shrine n.圣地

pullulate v.大量产生

Gold Wutai 金五台

Silver Putuo 银普陀

Copper Emei 铜峨眉

Iron Jiuhua 铁九华

Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨

Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨

Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨

Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨

reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身

ashram n. 修行的住所

Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼

Sarnath n. 鹿野苑

Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶

Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗

Wanghai Peak 望海峰

Yedou Peak 叶斗峰

Guayue Peak 挂月峰

Splendid Peak 锦绣峰

Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰

Xiantong Temple 显通寺

Nanchan Temple 南禅寺

Foguang Temple 佛光寺

The Great White Tower 大白塔

Puji Temple 普济寺

Fayu Temple 法雨寺

Huiji Temple 惠济寺

The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林

Wannian Temple 万年寺

Baoguo Temple 报国寺

Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺

Golden Summit 金顶

Huacheng Temple 化城寺

Tiantai Temple 天台寺

Longevity Palace 百岁宫

Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺

nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai

妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白

===Questions===

1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?

2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?

3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?

4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?

5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet [[Li Bai]]?--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.

2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.

3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.

4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.

5. Mount Putuo.

6. Mount Jiuhua.

===References===

1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.

2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.

3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.

4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html

5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.

--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:05, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==
===Compass===
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as one of the advanced scientific technologies in ancient China, has made great contributions to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity, use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94).

The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)

In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decrease in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)

In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)

Compass, as a tool for guiding the direction, has played an important role in people's daily life and in the navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It is recorded that Qin emperor used a diving board and compass in his royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass led people to believe that the square plate symbolized the earth and the round disc symbolized the heaven. And around the round disc, there engraved the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 constellations (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a superstition, the compass was endowed with the wishful thinking of the people. Nowadays many people still use the concept of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremonies. (China Week 2003,35)

Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass has played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)

The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until the 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)

[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]

===References===
*"FOUR Great Inventions" [四大发明]. ''China's Foreign Trade'' [《中国外贸》].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012).
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China" [指南针——中国四大发明之一]. ''China Week'' [《中华周刊》]. China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003).
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》 [''Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine'']. 武汉：武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan University Press].1995.

===Terms and Expressions===
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子
*lodestone 天然磁石
*south-governor 司南
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮
*Ding Du 丁度
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘
*dry compass 旱罗盘
*Eight Trigrams 八卦
*gimbal 常平架

===Questions===
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature?
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear?
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass?
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass?
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?

===Answers===
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.
*In the Warring States Period.
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==

''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.

===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.

Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his house. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he put many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''
--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. Contents and Themes===
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types:

One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.

In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.

The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types:

One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.

Pu Songling himeself suffered from his repeated failure in the imperial examination. In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. A Typical Story===
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.

Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan Province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Features of the Book===
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.

4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning.

4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

teahouse 茶馆

scholarly family书香世家

imperial examination 科举制度

underworld 阴曹地府

fox spirit 狐妖

salt merchant 盐商

forgetting to be alien 忘为异类

===Questions===

1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?

2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?

3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?

4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.

5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?

6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?

===Answers===
1. Nearly 500.

2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.

3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.

4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.

5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.

6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.

Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

===References===

==Four Main Philosophic Schools-张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 MTI 英语口译==

===Confucianism===

In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and tried to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.

Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatening the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”).

However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaws in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.

In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation could survive whatever disaster it encountered as well. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.

===Taoism or Daoism===

Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on the development of Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively.

First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts (百家争鸣)”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55).

However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor selected Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.

===Legalism===

Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law at its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.

Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishments according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.

===Mohism===

Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the latter contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.

During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.

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--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==

====A. Writing Brush====

Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)

Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)

In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)

Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

====B. Terms and Expressions====

笔锋 the tip of a wring brush

笔杆 pen-holder

宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush

羊毫笔 goat-hair brush

鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush

====C. Questions====

1. What are the four treasures of the study?

2. How long is the history of writing brush?

3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?

4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?

===Answers===

1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.

2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.

3. In the Warring States periods.

4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.

===References===

*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.

*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.

*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.

*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.

==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==

===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===

===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.(Paragraph is too long)--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.

===The Legendary of Nian===

According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.(paragraph is too long)

===Terms and Expressions===

Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海

Yandi 炎帝

Shanhaijing 山海经

Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山

Nüwa 女娃

Eastern Sea 东海

the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟

Zhang River 漳水

The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水

Emperor Yao 尧帝

Nian 年

new year 新年

===Questions===
1.Who is Nüwa?

She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.

2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?

The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.

3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?

Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.
===References===

[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.

[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.

[3]百度百科

[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian.

[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review.

[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168.

--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

==Face Changing in Sichuan Opera - Zhou Yiwen 周艺文 202070080629 英语笔译==

===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===

1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics

Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)

2.The origin and development of face changing

Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)

Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)

It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)

3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu

The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people's perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

4.Crafting materials for facial makeup

As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)

5.Three main types of Lianpu

There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)

===Terms and Expressions===

Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧

Face changing n.变脸

Lian pu 脸谱

Guan Yu 关羽

Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》

Liu Bei 刘备

Cao Cao 曹操

Qin Hui 秦桧

Yan Song 严嵩

Sima Yi 司马懿

Bao Zhenhg 包拯

Li Kui 李逵

Zhang Fei 张飞

Dian Wei 典韦

Pang Juan 庞涓

Xu Shiying 徐世英

Dou Erdun 窦尔敦

Cheng Yaojin 程咬金

Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜

Sun Wukong, 孙悟空

Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王

Peng Denghuai 彭登怀

Andy Lau 刘德华

Wiping Mask 抹脸

Blowing Mask 吹脸

Pulling Mask 扯脸

===Questions===
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?

2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?

3.How long is the history of face changing?

4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?

5.What are the three types of face changes?

===Answers===

1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).

2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.

3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).

4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.

5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.

===References===

Luo Yue 罗玥. (2019). 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术 [On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''戏剧之家'' Home Drama13:29-30.

Wang Huaqing 王华清. (2017). 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征 [Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''设计'' Design

Xiao Yuanjin 萧源锦. (2013). 神奇莫测的川剧变脸 [Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera]. ''文史杂志'' Journal of Literature and History 2: 54-55.

百度百科Baidu Baike

https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml

https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==

===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System.

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:

1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers.

2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates' talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn't have the power of appointment.

3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Nine-Grade Official Selection System, image from Baike. Click [https://baike.baidu.com/pic/%E4%B9%9D%E5%93%81%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%B6/1711003/1/77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f?fr=lemma&ct=single#aid=1&pic=77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f.jpg] for original source.]]

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Terms and Expressions===

Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制

Recommendatory System 察举制

Rectifier 中正官

Senior Rectifier 大中正官

Junior Rectifier 小中正官

Region 州

Commandery 郡

superior-superior 上上

superior-intermediary 上中

superior-inferior 上下

intermediary-superior 中上

intermediary-intermediary 中中

intermediary-inferior 中下

inferior-superior 下上

inferior-intermediary 下中

and inferior-inferior 下下

Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书

Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》

===Questions===

1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

2. What does a Rectifier do?

3. What are the nine ranks?

4. What's the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

===Answers===

1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.

2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.

3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.

4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

===References===

1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.

2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.

3. Deng Zhongping 邓中平. (2010). 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示 [Analysis of ancient Chinese system for selecting officers and enlightenment].西南政法大学 Southwest University of Political Science and Law.

==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632 Major: MTI ==

===Introduction===

From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)

From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)

Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]

The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)

The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]

In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)

In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===

[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]

This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）

This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Swastika lattice===

[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]

Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.

This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Fret lattice===

[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]

Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)

Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The cracked ice lattice===

[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]

The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)

The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The H-shaped Lattice===

[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]

The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)

The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The well-shaped lattice===

[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]

The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)

"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Vocabulary List===

lattice 格心

diamond lattice 菱花

the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花

the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花

a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花

swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花

fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花

the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花

the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花

===Questions===

1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows?

2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples?

3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice?

===Answers===

1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight.

2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples.

3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.

===Reference===

*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.

*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.

*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.

*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.

*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press

*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts

* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review.

* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.

==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 202070080631 MTI==

===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===

As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)

The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system. Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription.(Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020, 18)

Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011, 179)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]

Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012, 409)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]

There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays. Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020, 62)

Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.(Wang Yi, 2019, 106)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.

Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.

Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.

Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).

Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.

Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.

Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411.

Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).

Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy

===Terms and Expressions===
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间

Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗

xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗

Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派

Donglin School 东林党

Zhu Xi 朱熹

Zhou Shi 周式

Zhang Shi 张栻

Qiandao Reign 乾道年间

Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛

Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁

Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭

Yushu Library 御书楼

Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁

Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂

Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂

the Banxue Building 半学斋

the Hexi Platform 赫曦台

===Questions===
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?

2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?

3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?

4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?

5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?

6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?

===Answers===
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).

2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.

3.The Lecture Hall.

4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony.

5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning.

6.It held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.

--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==

===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===

[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55).
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835).
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22).
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.

Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.

*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.

*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.

*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.

*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.

*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.

*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.

*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.

*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.

===Terms and Expressions===
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"

|-

|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱

|-

|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期

|-

|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺

|-

|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树

|-

|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田

|-

|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年

|-

|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子

|}

===Questions===

1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?

2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?

3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?

4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?

5.What achievements did jiaozi make?

6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?

===Answers===
1.Jiaozi.

2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.

3.Merchants.

4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).

5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.

6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.

--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003 - Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===

Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]

[[File: makeup.jpg]]

Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.

It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.

In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.

From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]

Pale skin was and still is a sign of aristocracy in the East. Women literally put white on their face, their skin had to be snow-white, so they often went under umbrellas so as not to tan.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====I.Base make up====

1.Lead powder

In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

2.Rice powder

In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.

“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

====II.Color make up====

If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

1.Blush

Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).Blush in ancient China was bright and rich (this contrasted with white skin), which showed the Almighty that they were healthy and happy.

Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.

[[File: blush.jpg]]

2.Lipsctick

Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.

[[File: lipstick.jpg]]

3.Eyebrows

It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.Eyebrows are a separate and one of the favorite parts of makeup. They had to be clear and black. The women shaved off their eyebrows and then dyed the eyebrows in a thin arc or made them straight. It was customary for warriors to dye their eyebrows in such a way as to give the image a more severe look.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.

In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.

[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]

====III.Tang dynasty make up====

[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]

1.Early Tang Dynasty

The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.

In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.

*White make up

Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

*Red make up

In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.

As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty

After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.

For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.

3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty

After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.

In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.

However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.

The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.

4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times

Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.

Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.

====References====

*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

====Terms and Expressions====

*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.

*胭脂 - rouge

*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick

*黛 - black eyebrow dye

====Questions====

1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?

2.Why is lead powder dangerous?

3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?

4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?

5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?

6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?

====Answers====

1.Rice powder.

2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.

3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.

5.White make up and Red make up.

6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.

20201215 cultexam 4

2020-12-21T03:05:36Z

Zhang Yinliu: /* Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 student number missed, major missed */

*Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Chinese_Languages_and_Cultures Course Homepage].
*Link to the other Final Exam paper pages: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_1 1 Alsied, Saffana - Jiang Qiwei]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_2 2 Kang Haoyu - Sagara Seydou]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_3 3 Shi Haiyao - You Yuting]; [https://bou.de/u/wiki/20201215_cultexam_4 4 Yu Ni - Zubareva, Ekaterina]. This page has become too large. Do not write on this page any more, but on one of the smaller pages.

'''Final Exam Paper. Please write now and improve until grading on 2020 12 15'''
*You can use the texts in the coursebook as an example (like Unit 1, Text A). You only need to write Text A (like "Longevity Noodles") or Text B ("Mooncakes"), not a whole Unit. But please try to find fellow students who topics fit under the same Unit title ("Festival Meals") and arrange it accordingly.
*In the topic, please write the category, then the topic - your name and student no.
*For the text, please indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17.
*Add a section at the end called "References". There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: East China Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu`靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.
*Please also add a list "Terms and Expressions".
*Please add a "Questions" section.
*Please add a "Answers" section.

==Architecture, Bridges - Yu Ni 余妮英语笔译 202070080620==

===Four Famous Bridges in China—中国四大名桥===
--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:16, 1 December 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===
China is the hometown of bridges, which has been called "the country of bridges". It was developed in the Sui Dynasty and flourished in the Song Dynasty. The bridges were woven into a traffic network extending in all directions, connecting the motherland in all directions. The architectural arts of ancient Chinese bridges are pioneering works in the history of bridges, which fully demonstrates the extraordinary wisdom of the ancient Chinese. "Guangji Bridge in Chaozhou city, Zhaozhou Bridge in Hebei province, Luoyang Bridge in Quanzhou city and Lugou Bridge in Beijing are known as the four ancient bridges in China"

===Zhaozhou Bridge===
Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge, is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China. The bridge was built on the Xiaohe River, Hebei Province. From a distance, it looks like a bright moon in the clouds and a rainbow after rain hanging in the sky, beautiful and spectacular. It was built by Li Chun, a famous craftsman in the Sui Dynasty. With a length of 64.40 meters and a span of 37.02 meters, it is the largest span and the earliest single-span stone arch bridge with open shoulder in the world. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Li Chun creatively used the flat arch style, so that the stone arch height was reduced to 7.23 meters, and the ratio of arch height to span was about 1:5. In this way, the slope of the bridge deck is gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians. Moreover, it has the advantages of saving materials, fast construction, and increasing the strength and stability of the bridge. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there 1400 years ago. It has experienced 10 times floods, 8 times wars and many earthquakes, but it has not been damaged. (Shen Kun, 2016）

Mao Yisheng, a famous expert in bridges, said that regardless of the internal structure of the bridge, surviving for over 1300 years explains everything. According to records, Zhaozhou Bridge has been repaired eight times since its completion. Two small arches are added at both ends of the main arch, one is to save materials, the other is to reduce the weight of the bridge body, and to increase the discharge of the river. In order to protect Zhaozhou Bridge, at the end of last century, the new bridge built 100 meters away from Zhaozhou Bridge still follows its style. (Shen Kun, 2016）

In order to increase the flood discharge capacity, Li Chun also showed ingenuity by setting two small arches on each shoulder of the large arch. It can not only save stone and reduce the weight of the bridge body, but also help to discharge the flood, so as to achieve the perfect unity of architecture and art. It has become a great achievement of bridge engineering technology in China, which is more than 1200 years earlier than the similar arch bridge built in Europe in the middle of 19th century. (Shen Kun, 2016）

===Luoyang Bridge===
Quanzhou is a famous city with a history of over 1700 years. As early as the Tang and Song Dynasties, Quanzhou was known as an important trading port. Merchants, scholars and missionaries from all over the world came to Quanzhou, leaving many precious historical and religious relics and classical buildings. Luoyang Bridge, also known as “Wanan bridge”, was built by the governor Cai Xiang in the Northern Song Dynasty and completed in six years. It is difficult to build a bridge at the confluence of the river and the sea, the river is wide and deep, and the project is arduous. (Wei lichun, 2007)

The bridge is 834 meters at length and 7 meters at width. There are Zhaohui temple and Zhenshen temple in the north of the bridge, and Caixiang temple in the south of the bridge. In 1988, it was listed as one of the national key cultural protection units and one of Quanzhou’s world cultural heritage sites. (Wei lichun, 2007)

It was very difficult to build Luoyang Bridge at first. Because the river is wide and the current is swift, sometimes there is wind tide, the water potential is dangerous. Before the construction of the bridge, people came and went by ferries, which often capsized. In order to pray for the safety of the transition, the ferry here was named Wanan Du, so the bridge was also named Wanan Bridge after its completion. Therefore, it was also named Luoyang Bridge because it was built on the Luoyang River. (Wei lichun, 2007)

There are many innovations in the construction technology and technology of Luoyang bridge, the raft foundation style, the application and development of wedge pier and the use of oyster to cement bridge pier. After its completion, it has become an important channel of communication between Quanzhou and the mainland. Therefore, Luoyang Bridge has the reputation of “Wan An Ji Zhong”. Under the influence of the completion of Luoyang Bridge, there has been an upsurge of bridge construction in Fujian province, especially in Southern Fujian. Dozens of large and medium-sized stone girder bridges have been built.（Wei lichun, 2007)

===Lugou Bridge===
Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important transportation point from north to south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are not the same. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.(Shen Kun, 2016）

Lugou Bridge is the oldest stone multi-hole arch bridge in Beijing, which has a history of more than 800 years. In the Jin Dynasty, Lugou river was an important hub of communication between the north and south. There are 11 bridge holes in the whole bridge, and the span and height of each hole are all different. As early as the Jin Dynasty, this bridge was listed as one of the “Eight Sights of the capital”.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. At the east end are two big stone lions and the west are two big stone elephants which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians.(Shen Kun, 2016）

The bridge deck of Lugou Bridge is slightly curved with lower ends and uplift in the middle. The lower riverbed of the bridge is paved with pebbles and quartz sand. The whole bridge is built on it, which is very solid and stable. The two ends of the bridge are used as drum-shaped stone block. There are two big stone lions at the east end and two big stone elephants at the west which are huge and charming. In addition to the stone lion and stone statue on the top of the fence, there is a 4.65-meter-high ornamental table, which looks like seeing off pedestrians. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Bearing rich historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.(Shen Kun, 2016）

As the oldest stone arch bridge in Beijing and the place where the whole nation’s Anti-Japanese war broke out, Lugou bridge is not only an important cultural resource in Fengtai District, but also a memorial place for major national activities. Rich in historical resources, it has become important to publicize the revolutionary tradition of the Chinese nation and carry out patriotic education. Standing on the Lugou Bridge, you can see the memorial hall of the Chinese people’s Anti-Japanese War, the Yongdinghe River ferry wharf, the pinghan railway bridge site, and the Anti-Japanese War sculpture garden, which together constitute a spectacular historical and cultural map.--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Guangji Bridge===
Guangji Bridge is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Commonly known as Xiangzi bridge. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. (Wei lichun,2007)

Guangji Bridge, commonly known as Xiangzi bridge, is located at the east gate of the ancient city of Chaozhou, Guangdong Province. Crossing the vast Hanjiang River, it is an important transportation hub of Fujian and Guangdong. With its unique style of “18 shuttle boats and 24 continents”, it is praised as “the earliest open-close bridge in the world” by famous bridge expert Mao Yisheng. In particular, on the stone tablet of the imperial stele Pavilion at the east end of the bridge, the inscription “Lugou Xiaoyue” written by Emperor Qianlong is the most famous. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Stone lions and stone pavilions at both ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”.(Wei lichun,2007)

Stone lions and stone pavilions at the two ends of the bridge, together with Chinese totem pillar, constitute the bridgehead buildings with national characteristics. Marco Polo, an Italian at the end of the 13th century, praised Lugou Bridge as “a beautiful stone bridge in Hanbali”. It is the oldest existing large-scale double-arch long bridge in northern China. “Lugou Xiaoyue” is also one of the famous “Eight Sights of Yanjing”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. (Wei lichun,2007)

There are many folklores about Guangji Bridge. One of the legends is that“the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”. That is, after Han Yu came to Chaozhou in the Tang Dynasty, to communicate with the two sides, he asked his nephew Han Xiangzi and other eight immortals to build a bridge with Guangji monk. Due to the failure of his magic power, the middle section could not be connected. Monk Guangji and He Xiangu, one of the eight immortals, were connected with 18 shuttle boats by using lotus flowers as giant cables. Therefore, the bridges were called “Xiangzi bridge” and “Guangji Bridge” respectively. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones on Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain, leading in smashing down two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair.(Wei lichun,2007)

The second legend is that Wang Yuan removed the strange stones. Wang Yuan was the magistrate of Chaozhou who presided over the large-scale bridge repair. He built “24 towers” on the bridge, which was known as “the first bridge in the south of the Yangtze River”. It was said that there were two strange stones in Hulushan mountain, which caused frequent fires and lawsuits in Chaocheng. So, he personally led people up the mountain and smashed down the two strange stones. Wang Yuan’s move not only dispelled people’s fear of strange stones, but also solved part of the stone for bridge repair. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. So, he indicated that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge.(Wei lichun,2007)

The third legend is “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”. The Duke of Wu was the governor of Chaozhou in of Qing Dynasty. One year, because of the flood of Hanjiang River, Chaozhou City was in danger. He offered sacrifices to the water on the east gate and begged for the water to retreat. However, the water did not retreat. Therefore, he determined that he would live and die with the city. Strange to say, the flood receded at this time. Since then, people have set up his statue sacrifice in the east gate tower, and built a memorial archway in the East Bridge of Xiangzi bridge. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Many of China’s ancient and modern bridge science and technology have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information.(Wei lichun,2007)

Many ancient and modern bridge science and technology in China have been in the forefront of the world’s bridge construction, and many bridge styles continue to have an impact on the world’s modern bridge construction. At the same time, it is a living treasure of cultural relics, recording a lot of precious information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Shen Kun 沈坤. (2016). 中国古代四大名桥[Four famous bridges in ancient China].百姓生活People's life (07) 59-62.

Wei Wei薇薇. (2016).中国人必须知道的国学常识[The common knowledge of Chinese culture that Chinese people must know].雷锋 Lei Feng (Z1) 148-149.

Wei Lichun魏丽春. (2007).我国的四大名桥[Four famous bridges in China].新长征New Long March (08) 60.

Huang Jun黄军. (1996).我国风景名胜中的四大[Four famous scenic spots in China].农家之友 Friends of farmers (03) 46.

===Terms and expressions===

石拱桥 stone arch bridge

望柱 baluster

桥基 settlement

泄洪 flood discharging

桥墩 pier

抱鼓石 drum-shaped stone block

华表Chinese totem pillar

栏杆 balustrade

燕京八景 Eight Sights of Yanjin

启闭式桥梁 open-close bridge

===Questions===

1.Which is is the oldest long-span stone arch bridge in China?

2.How many folklores are there about Guangji Bridge and what are they?

3.How long has Zhaozhou Bridge been there ?

4.Why did Li Chun use the flat arch style to build Zhaozhou Bridge?
===Answers===
1. Zhaozhou Bridge, also known as Anji Bridge.

2.Three. They are “the immortal Buddha builds the bridge”, “Wang Yuan removed the strange stones” and “Wu Fu Gong Ji Shui”.

3. Zhaozhou Bridge has been there for 1400 years.

4. To make the slope of the bridge deck gentle, which is convenient for vehicles, horses and pedestrians.

==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==

====Milk Tea====

We live in a modern world with countless yummy food where youngsters can’t live without milk tea. There is even one popular cyber saying that goes like this:”Youngsters continue their lives by drinking milk tea.”
Milk tea, popular throughout the whole country, even the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol pf modern civilization human life, especially youngsters’ lives, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for youngsters.（Li Xintong 2020，14）
So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well discuss the past and current situations of milk tea!

Living in a modern world with countless yummy food, youngsters have a special obsession for milk tea. There is even a popular saying that goes like this online:”Youngsters sustain their lives by milk tea.”--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Milk tea, popular everywhere in our nation and the rest of the world, originated from bubble tea of Taiwan. Currently, we have entered into “Milk Tea 4.0 Era”. Such an era has endowed milk tea with a brand-new meaning, becoming a cultural symbol of modern civilized human life, namely, a pursuit of identity recognition for the youths.（Li Xintong 2020，14）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

So, is milk tea really so miraculous? Is it really so tasty? We may as well have a discussion of its past and current stories !--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====A.The Origin of Milk Tea====

Each school holds its own opinion about the origin, but in fact, if we carefully analyse the fact, we can easily find its true origin, that is---”Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still treat visitors with milk tea, which is an unshakable traditional custom.

Each school holds different opinions about the origin, but in fact, after a careful analysis, we can easily find its origin can be traced back as far as to "Mongolia Milk Tea” drunk by nomadic tribes in Mongolia Plateau. Till now, the nomadic tribes living in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of PRC still serve their honored visitors with milk tea, which has become an unshakable traditional custom.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====B.The Development of Milk Tea====

Due to the rampant global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, it was improved and developed in Britain.
Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the distinction of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea to replace spice to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.
In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added local snack flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic feeling was spread.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）
By far, modern milk tea has preliminarily come into shape.

Due to the reckless global expansion of British colonists, lots of oriental local products, including milk tea of China, were also transported to the occidental world. Later, milk tea was improved and reformed in Britain.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Since the introduction of milk tea into Britain, due to the difference of climate and dietary habits, British gave up the utilization of spice, but mixed sundry kinds of tea instead to make milk tea, and added maple sugar as condiment, thus giving birth to the rudiment of modern milk tea and its basic ingredients.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
Later, Taiwan introduced milk tea.

In the spring of 1987, manager of a Taiwanese cold drink department---Ms. Lin Xiuhui of "Chunshuitang" , added a local snack made by flour into milk tea, and after her successful promotion to consumers, Lin and her colleagues Shen Tonge, Lin Lingru and Wang Yufeng, were inspired by cooked flour whose shape and color is similar to black pearl, thus creating the name “Pearl Milk Tea”(Bubble tea, currently). Henceforth, the name full of aesthetic emotions was spread far and wide.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

By far, modern milk tea has come into its preliminarily shape.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====C.A Comparison of Oriental and Foreign Milk Tea====

====1.Local Changsha Milk Tea====

When in Changsha, talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is famed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as Changsha’s original Chinese style tea brand, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China on the basis of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.
The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）
The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, comprised of Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte emphasizes both milk and tea, with each flavor balanced pretty well.

When in Changsha, why not talk as Changshanese do, so let’s talk about Changsha local milk tea first. As we all know, Changsha is reputed as an Internet celebrity city, mostly due to “Sexytea”. Sexytea was founded in 2013 as the first original Chinese style tea brand in Changsha, uniquely practicing the creation of “new Chinese-style fresh tea”, and staying committed to growing to an original tea beverage design brand. What Sexytea brings to customers is not only a cup of tea, but also an interesting lifestyle, thus showing the beauty of China by means of tea. All Sexytea milk tea is produced with Nestle fresh milk and excellent quality tea leaves as ingredients.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The logo of Sexytea is mainly composed of a Jiangnan (south of Yangtze River) woman. A fan and a beauty vividly show the majesty and quaintness of antique Chinese style. Compared with other current milk tea brand logos, that of Sexytea has left a great impression on people.（茶颜悦色密码 2020,68）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

The signature milk tea of Sexytea is “black tea latte”, made up by Ceylon black tea, Zelanian Anchor whipping cream and American pecans. On the top of the paper cup is Anchor whipping cream with pecans. Black tea latte attaches the same importance to both milk and tea, with each flavor mingled pretty well.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 16:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.Hong Kong-style milk tea====

The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet fashionable in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong, with his wife and a clerk opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea". This is the origin of silk stockings milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)

The inventor of Hong Kong-style milk tea is Lin Muhe, the founder of the time-honored brand Lanfangyuan in Central, Hong Kong. The 81-year-old "Father of Hong Kong-style milk tea" has never used silk stockings to make tea. When Lanfangyuan was firstly opened, silk stockings were not yet popular in Hong Kong. When Lin Muhe was about 10 years old, he worked in Hong Kong. Later, with his wife and a clerk, he opened Lanfangyuan Food Stall in Baihua Street of Central in 1952. During those days, the small stall always attracted nearby dockers every afternoon, who enjoyed themselves watching Lin Muhe and his colleagues washing their tea bags to and fro. When they saw the brown color of tea bags, they thought it was silk stockings. After that, they would shout "a cup of silk stockings milk tea" to place an order, hence the name of this milk tea(currently Hong Kong-style milk tea).（《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》)--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.Indian Masala Chai====

Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicrafts. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the beginning. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is what Masala Chai should be. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）

Authentic Masala Chai can only be drunk in India, which is cooked by delicate handicraftsmen. Due to the addition of various spices, the taste is strong, mellow, hot and spicy at the first sip. However, if the flavor is slightly changed, it will be sweet or spicy, or the various flavors will react with each other. It is just as confusing as Indian curry, but pretty fascinating. Maybe this is the essence of Masala Chai. Drinking Indian milk tea is not only a baptism to taste, but also a return to primitive nature in certain level.（《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食）--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====C.Milk Tea and Health====

====1.Advantages====

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.

Drinking milk tea can rapidly replenish sugar, increase body energy, mitigate fatigue and improve working efficiency.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.Disadvantages====

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the risk of getting fat. It will also induce cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer after a long time consuming.--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 09:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====References====

1.李欣童.（2020）浅谈台湾奶茶文化的三十年变迁.传播力研究,4(14)14-15

2.《世界著名奶茶大全》厨影美食

3.《百度百科——丝袜奶茶》

4.茶颜悦色密码（2020）国企管理,(20)68.

====Terms and Expressions====

Milk tea 奶茶

Spice 香辛料

Rudiment 雏形

Sexytea 茶颜悦色

Black tea latte 幽兰拿铁

Hong Kong-style milk tea 丝袜奶茶

Cholesterol 胆固醇

Hyperglycemia 高血糖

Mongolian Plateau 蒙古高原

Maple sugar 枫糖

Bubble tea 珍珠奶茶

Internet celebrity city网红城市

Pecans 碧根果

Masala Chai 马萨拉奶茶

Hyperlipidemia 高血脂

Angiocardiopathy 心血管疾病

Gastrointestinal 肠胃的

====Questions====

1.What is the origin of milk tea?

Mongolia Milk Tea.

2.Who promoted milk tea?

British colonists.

3.What is the birth place of modern milk tea?

Britain.

4.What is Changsha’s most famous Internet celebrity milk tea shop’s name?

Sexytea.

5.Is Hong Kong-style milk tea produced with silk stockings?

No.

6.What are the advantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking milk tea can quickly supplement sugar, increase body energy, decrease fatigue and improve working efficiency.

7.What are the disadvantages of drinking milk tea?

Drinking too much milk tea will increase the possibility of getting fat. It will also increase cholesterol, and even lead to hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia, doing harm to liver and kidney, increasing risks of angiocardiopathy, thus affecting study and memory, and damaging normal gastrointestinal function. It will even cause cancer if drunk for a long time.

==Qingming Riverside Landscspe Garden-Zeng Liang 曾良- MTI 英语笔译-202070080578==

===Introduction===

Located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden is a large-scale historical and cultural theme park covering an area of more than 600 acresand showing the prosperous scenery of Song Dynasty. It is based on the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' drawn by famous painter Zhang Zeduan in the earlier Song Dynasty.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)

In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China's first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and also, the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions and China's intangible cultural heritage exhibition base. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.(Wei Tuo 2006,13)

The painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' is a precious scroll of social and folk life in ancient China, reflecting the social life, manners and customs of marketplace, and urban architectural patterns of Kaifeng, the capital of the Northern Song Dynasty in China. Although it is just a minor part of Kaifeng at that time, people can still have a glimpse of the general appearance of other streets and urban areas. It is interesting that a thousand years ago, Zhang Zeduan moved it from reality to a painting, but a thousand years later, Kaifeng people moved it from a painting into reality. Wandering among them, people can have a feeling of going back in time.(Zhang Lu 2013,25)

There are eight functional zones including posthouse, folk custom, characteristic food street, demonstration of culture in Song Dynasty, flower, bird, fish, bug, prosperous capital, leisure and shopping, and integrated service, and four cultural zones including military drill ground, Rainbow Bridge, folk custom, and capital of Song Dynasty. The main architechtures of the garden include gate building, rainbow bridge, street view, stores, river channels, wharfs and ships. According to the original layout of Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival, the garden presents the fabrications on site such as wine shops, teahouses, pawnshops, Bian (today’s Kaifeng) embroideries, official porcelains, and New Year paintings, gathers folk performance, vaudeville, and drum performance. (Gao Jing 2010,18)

The main tourist attrations in the garden include Rainbow Bridge, Fuyun Pavillion, Shangshan Gate and so on. The Rainbow Bridge is an important creation in the history of ancient Chinese bridges. It is listed as the top ten famous bridges in China, and a major landscape in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The original one was built in 1050 and reconstructed in 1998. It is a replica of one of the ten ancient timber bridges.(Chen Kang 2006,62)

The Fuyun Pavillion, the tallest building in the garden, reaches 31.99 meters high. The name of “Fuyun” has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map. From the outside, the pavilion is four floors but there are another three floors hidden inside. It is also the place where important royal documents and traditional Chinese painting and books are stored during the Song Dynasty. (Zhang Lu 2006,62)

Every year, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden will hold a series of cultural festivals, such as folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, Qingming cultural festival, and chrysanthemum cultural festival. During the folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty, the scenic spot will gather unique folk performances across the country, such as flower-drum on the high platform, stilt, dragon dance, lion dance, small Henan opera. The international lantern exhibition is the highlight of folk cultural festival of Song Dynasty. A visual feast will be brought by auspicious tradition of Chinese Pavilion, the fresheness and refineness of Asian Pavilion, simplicity and fashion of European Pavilion, the quaint Buddhism of the Southeast Asia Pavilion, and the luxurious atmosphere of the African Pavillion.(Zhang Lu 2013, 26)

During the Qingming Festival, the garden will hold some Qingming cultural festivals to promote traditional festival culture. At that time, vistors can walk out for a spring outing, plant willion trees, watch folk customs, taste snacks, and enjoy the large-scale water live performances called ''Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty''. This event combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.(Gao Jing 2010,17)

Chrysanthemum cultural festival is another grand one in the garden, during which all kinds of chrysanthemums will be presented. The annual chrysanthemum festival in Kaifeng is held from October to November. Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden focuses on beautiful chrysanthemum plants, and makes full use of architectures, sculptures, mountains, the surface of the water and association of activity and inertia to highlight the cultivated and creative skills of Kaifeng people. Chrysanthemums are changed into various shapes, attracting thousands of visitors from all over the world. In the exhibition, visitors can enjoy and appreciate some species of chrysanthemum that are rarely seen in our daily life.(Zhang Lu 2013,24)

There are vaious performances presented in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden, such as "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty", "Baogong Salute to Guests", "Spitting Fire Show", "Cockfight", "Women's Polo" and so on. Among these formances, "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty" is a representative show of the garden. It is a large-scale live water performance produced by Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. The performance lasts for 70 minutes and is performed by more than 700 actors. It is a scroll about the heyday of the Northern Song Dynasty. The bustling scene of the Song Dynasty market, the prosperity of the capital of Bianliang(today's Kaifeng), the mighty momentum of luxurious neighboring countries, the tragedy of wars, and the sustenance of blessings constitute a wash painting with a combination of noise and tranquility.(Gao Jing 2010,16)

Ancient Chinese architectures and western architectures are different. The ancient architectures of China can be divided into palace architecure, religious architecture, mansion architecture and public architecture, which can be seen in the Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden. Compared with the Gothic architecture during the Middles Ages of the western Europe, the architecture of Song Dynasty shows a delicate and soft style, with complex forms of palaces, terraces, towers and pavilions, while Gothic archetecture is magnificent and exquisite. It has pointed vaults, which gives people a visual impact and has a strong religious color.(Pang Runxin 2019,10)

===Terms and Expressions===

Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden 清明上河园

''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' 《清明上河图》

Rainbow Bridge 虹桥

Fuyun Pavillion 浮云阁

Shangshan Gate 上善门

chrysanthemum 菊花

Baogong Salute to Guests 包公迎宾

Spitting Fire Show 气功喷火

Cockfight 斗鸡

Women’s Polo 女子马球

Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty 大宋·东京梦华

===Questions===

1. What is the location of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden?

2. What’s the role of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden in China?

3. When was Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden opened to the public?

4. Who is the painter of ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival''?

5. Which dynasty of the painting ''Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival'' present?

6. What does the name of "Fuyun Pavilion" mean?

7. What’s the characteristics of the performance of "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

8. Can you please list some kinds of performance of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden besides "Luxuriant Dream of the East Capital of the Great Song Dynasty"?

===Answers===

1. It is located on the west bank of Dragon Pavilion in Kaifeng, Henan Province.

2. In 2009, Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden was chosed as China’s first theme park in the style of the ancients by China World Records Association. It is a key historical and cultural tourist attraction on the national Yellow River golden tourism line, and it is also the first batch of 5A-level tourist attractions in the country and China’s intangible cultural heritage exhibition base.

3. It was officially opened to the public on October 28, 1998.

4. Zhang Zeduan.

5. Northern Song Dynasty.

6. The name of "Fuyun" has two meanings: one is to touch, which means the pavilion rises into the clouds and touches the white clouds; the other is to clean, which means blowing away the smoke and clouds of history, and returning a real treasure map.

7. It combines historical Song cultural elements with modern entertainments, allowing visitors to better experience spring, get close to culture and enjoy life.

8. Baogong Salute to Guests, Spitting Fire Show, Cockfight, Women’s Polo.

===References===

Chen Kang 陈康. (2006).《清明上河园》的精彩场景——贯木拱虹桥[Excellent Scenes of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden——Wooden Arch Rainbow Bridge].''集邮博览'' Philatelic Panorama(07)62-63.

Gao Jing 高静. (2010). 清明上河园——玩转宋文化[Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden—Fully Experience the Culture of Song Dyansty]. ''光彩''Brilliance(04)16-19.

Li Mei 李梅. (2007). 清明上河园特色建设与长远发展[Distinctive Architecture of Qingming Riverside Landscape Garden nd its Long Development]. ''合作经济与科技'' Co-operative Economyand Science(8)10-12.

Pang Runxin 庞润昕. (2019). 《清明上河图》的建筑艺术[Architectural Art in Paintings of Riverside Scene Qingming Festival]. ''景德镇陶瓷大学''Jingdezheng Ceramic Institute(06)10-16.

Wei Tuo 韦陀. (2006). 张择端之《清明上河图》[Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival Painted by Zhang Zeduan]. ''紫禁城'' Forbidden City（Z2)13-15.

Zhang Lu 张璐. (2013). 清明上河园与宋都文化传承创新研究[Inheritance and Innovation Research Study of "Qingming River" Song Dynasty Theme Park]. ''赤峰学院学报'' Chi Feng College Journal(05)23-27.
--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Batik, Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛202070080579 MTI英语笔译==
===Batik(Lanran)===

Batik is a traditional printing and dyeing craftsmanship of textile in China. It was called laxie (Xie, a printing and dyeing method) in ancient times, also known as one of the four great ancient printing techniques which also include jiaoxie (tie-dye), huixie (hollow printing), and jiaxie ( Clamping fabric with clips and the clamped part is difficult to be penetrated by the dye, so as to produce patterns)) in ancient China.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

===History===

According to interpretation of "Laran" in the collection of Wang Aijun of Junyou Society: Batik is an ancient dyeing technique. It is called “Batik” in Indonesia or Malaysia.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

Batik art, with a long history, emerged in China. According to the records of the “Eryi Records”, Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties. The court of the Sui Dynasty especially liked this kind of handicrafts, and special patterns appeared in this period.
The earliest unearthed batik object was a quilt which was excavated in the tomb of Chu in the Warring States Period in Changsha, and the pattern on the quilt is still unknown.(Liu Haili, 1986,1)

Batik was especially popular in the Tang Dynasty, during which the technology was more mature than before. At that time, batik can be divided into two types: single-color dyeing and multi-color dyeing, the latter of which can use as many as four or five colors. Later generations can get a glimpse of the gaudiness of batik patterns in the Tang Dynasty from clothes of two women in Song Huizong’s copy of The Painting of Pounding the Texture by Zhang Xuan, and horsemen’s clothes in The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing. Due to the great influence of Chinese culture in the Tang Dynasty on Japan, Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen, which was brought back to Japan by a monk in the Tang Dynasty. (Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik, Cao Saina, 2020,5）

Batik has declined in China since the Song Dynasty, but it has become popular in various parts of Southeast Asia at the same time (especially in Japan, Sumatra and other islands). So far, Indonesian and Malaysian clothes are almost all made of batik.

===Types===

Because of vast territory of China, Chinese folk batik art has different forms and styles in different regions. Whether to understand batik art from the perspective of region or ethnic group, it seems difficult to adopt a single method to classify the batik art because of its diversity.Therefore, some scholars analyzed the characteristics of batik art according to different regions, and some scholars tried to understand the style of batik art based on different ethnic groups. We adopted both ways to classify batik art.

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces. Chinese batik has different types, such as type of Danzhai, Chonganjiang, Zhijin, Rongjiang, Southern Sichuan, Hainan, Wenshan, etc. The use, craft, pattern and style of batik vary from region to region. （Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

===Technical Process===

Preparation

Firstly, bleaching and washing the cloth with straw ash, then knead boiled taros into a paste and apply them to the back of the cloth. After drying, using horns to smooth and polish the cloth on a natural ironing table—slate. （Liao Li, 2012）

Applying wax

Putting the white cloth flat on a wooden board or table, and filling a ceramic bowl or metal pot with beeswax, which was melt with charcoal ash or chaff shell in the brazier, so as to dip the wax with a copper knife.
Then people can start drawing with the wax. Making a rough sketch according to paper-cut patterns, based on which various beautiful patterns were drawn on the cloth. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dip-dyeing

Firstly, putting the wax-painted cloth in an indigo dyeing vat. Secondly, taking it out and drying in the air after being soaked for five or six days, and it will be light blue. After soaking it several times, it will become dark blue. To have both light and dark patterns on the same cloth, one needs to apply wax to the light blue cloth and dip dye it again, after which it appeared in two shades of blue. When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns". This "ice pattern" tends to make the batik pattern more layered and unique. （Liao Li, 2012）

Dewaxing

After rinsing, boiling with clear water, the wax was removed, showing clear-cut blue and white patterns on the cloth.（Liao Li, 2012）

===Materials ===

The basic principle of batik is to apply wax in the shape of flower on cloth (in ancient times, people use beeswax, while in modern times, people use mixed wax made of paraffin, beeswax, and wood wax), and dip dye the part without wax blue, while the the part with wax turns out to be white, known as “white space” in jargon. Besides, dyestuff could only be used in low temperature because that every wax would melt in high temperature.(Liao Li, 2012)

In ancient times, there were no chemical dyes, people had to use vegetal dyes, for example, the stems and leaves of various plants such as Polygonum in Polygonaceae, Isatis tinctoria in Cruciferae, and Woody in leguminous can be fermented to produce indigo dyestuffs. Dyestuffs made from other plants such as safflower for red, madder, yellow gardenia, turmeric for yellow, and Rhamnus utility for green, could only be dyed in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton. Therefore, it was difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors but indigo in ancient times.(Liao Li, 2012)

In the modern printing and dyeing industry, the X-type reactive dyes used in large quantities are all low-temperature types, which can be used below 20-35 degrees and have many different colors. That’s why modern batik crafts can be colorful. However, from the perspective of environmental protection, indigo batik is safer and healthier. （Liao Li, 2012）

===Patterns===

From the classification of Guizhou batik patterns, there were mainly two categories: natural and geometric patterns.
Natural patterns can be divided into plant patterns and animal patterns.（Li Xing, 2020,3)

Natural patterns include chrysanthemum, lotus, peach, orchid, peony, pomegranate, gourd, sunflower, cockscomb, duckweed, aquatic plants, bracken, pepper, and nameless flowers in the mountains.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

Animal patterns include ox, dragon, Birds, tigers, lions, elephants, deer, dogs, rabbits, chickens, rats, phoenixes, pheasants, titmouses, owls, bats, butterflies, bees, frogs, snails, turtles, shrimps and other patterns.（Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik）

The patterns were originated from the nature, based on which ethnic minorities in Guizhou province made bold changes in creation, accurately presenting characteristics of the objects in an extravagant way with high aesthetic value.

Batik art has been handed down from generation to generation in ethnic minority areas. After a long time development, it has accumulated rich creative experience and formed an unique art style, becoming a flower of national art with Chinese characteristics.(Liao Li, 2012）

===Terms and Expressions===

batik 蜡染

laxie 蜡缬

huixie 灰缬

jiaoxie 绞缬

jiaxie 夹缬

Eryi Records 《二仪实录》

The Painting of Pounding the Texture 《捣练图》

The Painting of Lady Guoguo on a Spring Outing《虢国夫人游春图》

single-color dyeing 单色染

multi-color dyeing 复色染

Nara’s Shosoin 奈良的正仓院

Polygonum 蓼蓝

Polygonaceae蓼科植物

Isatis tinctoria 松蓝

Cruciferae 十字花科

anil 木蓝属植物

leguminous豆科

safflower红花

madder茜草

yellow gardenia黄色栀子

turmeric姜黄

Rhamnus utility冻绿

===Questions and Answers===

1. Which four printing techniques are the four great printing techniques in ancient China?

Laxie, huixie, jiaoxie,and jiaxie.

2. When did batik appear and become popular?

Batik appeared in the Qin and Han Dynasties, and then became popular during the Six Dynasties.

3. What batik product was kept in Nara’s Shosoin?

Nara’s Shosoin has preserved various treasures of Chinese craftsmanship since the Tang Dynasty, including a set of batik folding screen.

4. Where does batik mainly distribute in China?

China's batik is mainly distributed in Guizhou, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangdong, Taiwan, Jiangxi provinces.

5. What are the 4 main processes of making a batik?

Preparation, applying wax, dip-dyeing, and dewaxing.

6. How does “ice patterns” appear?

When the wax-painted cloth was soaked in the dyeing vat, some "wax seals" were broken due to folds, forming natural cracks, generally called "ice patterns".

7. Why was it difficult to make batik fabrics of other colors in ancient times?

Because dyestuffs of different colors could only be used used in hot water, or the color may fade quickly. However, in high temperature, the beeswax had melted and couldn’t maintain the flower shape on the cotton.

===References===

Baidu Encyclopedia—Batik 百度百科—蜡染 https://baike.baidu.com/item/蜡染/306637?fr=aladdin

Liao Li, 廖利 Batik Art《蜡染艺术》世界大学城 www.worlduc.com

Cao Saina曹赛娜. The Evolution Trend of Chinese Batik and Its Local Activation Method 中国蜡染演化趋势与本土活化方式浅探 China Art College 中国美术学院,2010:5

Li Xing, 李欣. Development and Cultural Connotations of Batik in Guizhou 贵州蜡染发展源流及文化内涵 . Memoir of the first academic seminar of the Education Modernization Professional Committee of the Guangdong Education Society in 2020 广东教育学会教育现代化专业委员会2020年第一次学术研讨会论文集 2020:3.

Liu Haili刘海粟. The History, Current Situation and Development of Batik in Guizhou贵州蜡染的历史、现状及其发展. 贵州师范大学学报(社会科学版),1986,(01):1-6.

==Chinese Ancient Weapons -Zhang Hui张慧 202070080622 MTI==
===Chinese Ancient Weapons===
===A.Chinese Ancient Weapons===
In ancient China, there was a saying of “18 martial arts”, which actually refers to 18 kinds of weapons. Generally, it refers to bow, crossbow, gun, stick, knife, sword, spear, shield, axe, greataxe, dagger halberd, spiked mace, iron whip, bar mace, hammer, trident, palladium, and dagger axe. But the weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds, if you add all kinds of strange weapons and all kinds of hidden weapons, its total number is no less than a hundred kinds of fear.(沈志刚，2010).Quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Short weapons

The so-called short weapons are generally no longer than a person’s eyebrows, lighter in weight, and often held in one hand when used. The most common short weapons are knives and swords.

Long Weapons

The most common long weapons in the martial arts world are spears, stick, and swords. The cord strike concealed weapons are rope dart, meteor hammers, flying claws, soft whips, iron lotus flowers and so on.

Historical Origins

Generally speaking, Chinese ancient weapons refer to the various types of weapons and total equipment used by the Chinese army and civilians in ancient China from the prehistoric period to the end of the Qing Dynasty, that is, until the Opium War in 1840. Both Chinese and foreign studies of ancient weapons take the use of gunpowder as a historical phase, that is, before the invention of gunpowder, the weapons used in the army were called cold weapons. After the invention of gunpowder, the weapons made of gunpowder appeared, firearms. This was the period when cold weapons and firearms were used together. Ancient Chinese weapons can be roughly divided into three stages, the first is the prehistoric period, which is the Stone Age weapons.Quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

After the beginning of bronze smelting and casting, the main material for weapons at this time began to change to bronze. The weapons of this period were the weapons of the Bronze Age. After people understood the smelting of metals, the main material of the weapons used by the army was changed to steel, and then it entered into the Iron Age.

During the Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder began to be used in weapons. China was the home of gunpowder, and its army was the first to use gunpowder weapons.
After gunpowder came to the West, there was a great development. Therefore, the Dutch and Spanish merchant ships came to China and brought over advanced western firearms, and the Ming Army began to introduce western firearms production technology. After the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty started to train new soldiers, Yuan Shikai started to train new soldiers, and started to introduce new western firearms, the history of ancient Chinese weapons ended. The following is a specific introduction of several weapons.

The meteor hammer

The meteor hammer(Chinese: 流星錘), often referred to simply as meteor (Chinese: 流星), is an ancient Chinese weapon, consisting at its most basic level of two weights connected by a rope or chain. One of the flexible or "soft" weapons, it is referred to by many different names worldwide, dependent upon region, construction and intended use. Other names in use include dai chui, flying hammer, or dragon’s fist. It belongs to the broader classes of flail and chain weapons.
The meteor hammer could be easily concealed as a defensive or surprise weapon, being of a flexible construction. The primary advantage for using a meteor hammer was its sheer speed.There are two types of meteor hammers:[1] a double-headed version (the typical image of a meteor hammer is generally of this type) and a single-headed version.

Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle. Since the meteor has two heads, one could be used offensively while the other could be used to defend, parrying attacks or ensnaring an opponent’s weapon to disarm them. When used by a skilled fighter, its speed, accuracy and unpredictability make it a difficult weapon to defend against. While being swung, a meteor may be wrapped around its user’s arms, legs, torso, neck or waist, before being unwrapped by a powerful jerk of the body to deliver a devastating and swift blow. A master is fully capable of striking, ensnaring or strangling from a distance.

Rope Dart

The rope dart or rope javelin (simplified Chinese: 绳镖), is one of the flexible weapons in Chinese martial arts. Other weapons in this family include the meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip. Although the flexible weapons share similar movements, each weapon has its own specific techniques.
Demonstration of the use of a rope dart.

The rope dart is a long rope (usually 3–5 metres or 10–16 feet) with a metal dart attached to one end. This was a weapon from ancient times, which allows the user to throw the dart out at a long-range target and use the rope to pull it back. The rope dart can be used for twining, binding, circling, hitting, piercing, tightening, slashing and other techniques.The first written description of the rope dart is dated from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).

Rope dart play consists of twining, shooting, and retrieval. Twining and shooting can be done from any joint such as foot, knee, elbow, and neck. The rope is anchored on one hand and played primarily with the other hand.

Skillful use of the rope dart can easily trick an opponent because the dart can shoot out very suddenly, from a person beyond immediate reach.Just like the chain whip, excellent hand-eye coordination is a must for the practitioner to use this weapon well. In some Wushu training regimens, the chain whip and Changquan are prerequisites for learning the rope dart.

A variation of this weapon is the meteor hammer, which has a blunt weight on the end of the rope. It was used in a similar fashion to the rope dart, and many of the techniques are the same.

These ancient weapons have been replaced by newer weapons as they have evolved, and eventually their historical missions have come to an end. The ancient weapons that once equipped the military have been forgotten. So far, many people have only a glimpse of the ancient weapons from movies and plays.

It is not uncommon for people to be forgotten. In fact, this kind of forgetfulness is quite normal, as weapons are not always the only thing that can be forgotten.
It is with the development of society that old things are naturally forgotten as they are continually being eliminated and renewed. We look forward to the development of more advanced weapons, more technological progress, and a stronger country!

===B.Terms and Expressions===
greataxe 钺

trident 叉

dagger halberd 戟

spiked mace 殳

soft whip 软鞭

bar mace 锏

dagger axe 戈

rope dart 绳镖
===C.Questions===
1. The total numbers of Chinese martial arts?

Answer: The weapons in Chinese martial arts are far more than eighteen kinds.

2. The name of the first stage of Chinese weapons?

Answer: The Stone Age weapons.

3. The other weapons in the family of rope dart?

Answer: The meteor hammer, flying claws, Fei Tou flying weight, and chain whip.

4. How to use a meteor hammer?

Answer: Using a meteor hammer involves swinging it around the body to build up considerable speed before releasing the meteor to strike at any angle.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

1.百度百科

2.沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.

3."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.

4.Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

[1].百度百科

[2].沈志刚，《中国兵器的发展》.《明长城陵营造600周年学术研讨会论文集》，2010：497-500.

[3]."''Chinese Kung Fu – Meteor Hammer''". China A-2-Z. March 6, 2009. Archived from the original on September 23, 2009.

[4].Jwing-Ming Yang (1999). ''Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist's Guide''. YMAA Publication Center Inc. p. 93.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Terracotta Army-Zhang Ling 张玲英语笔译 202070080623==

===Terracotta Army===

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in the afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)

The Terracotta Army, also known as Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion, refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots, which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China. The Terracotta Warriors are actually soldiers guarding Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum and protecting him in his afterlife.（ Mark Cartwright, 2017)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well o find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising find, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

For centuries, Qin Shi Huang's massive mausoleum remained undetected until it was unearthed by chance by a group of farmers. In 1974, some farmers in the nearby Xiyang Village began digging a well to find a water resource on some waste land. At first, they found some unique red soil about 2-meter (6.6-feet) in depth underground. On the fifth day after the work started, they found a torso of a pottery figurine, and the villagers originally believed that it was a statue of god and became nervous about offending the god. Thereafter, they continued to find some bronze arrows, crossbows and broken warriors from the well. Prompted by this surprising finding, archaeologists began to explore the area, resulting in the discovery of thousands of similar soldiers. After careful examination, they found that the pottery fragments should be parts of the Terracotta Warriors from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As the king of the Qin state, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

As the king of the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang (also known as Shi Huangdi) unified China from 221 BCE and then founded the Qin dynasty which is the first and multinational feudal empire in Chinese history. After he had unified China, he considered his achievement surpassing the legendary "San Huang (three emperors)" and "Wu Di (five sovereigns)". He created a new title for himself: "Huangdi" together with "Shi (means the first)", hence get the name "Qin Shi Huang" or "Qin Shi Huangdi", which means he was the first emperor of China.(Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on acquiring immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)

The emperor seems to have been especially keen on pursuing immortality, so he sent his ministers to go on quests seeking for an elixir of immortality, and young emissaries were sent across the Eastern Sea in search of the fabled Penglai, land of the immortals. Having failed in these attempts to unnaturally prolong his life, Shi Huangdi returned to the age-old standby of autocratic rulers and had a huge mausoleum built instead. In fact, the whole great project began early in his reign, for it required a great deal of work to prepare. (Kelly Richman-Abdou, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Ancient Chinese rulers generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Ancient Chinese governors generally had two or three statues outside their tombs as guardians, but Shi Huangdi chose a large group of such statues. The Terracotta Army is actually one of only four in all likelihood as that portion so far excavated (1.5 km from the mausoleum) is on the eastern side and is probably duplicated on the other three sides of the mausoleum. Even this one-quarter section has not been fully excavated, and archaeologists have explored only three of the four pits. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters deep. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armor with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

The main pit of the four which contain the discovered army measures 230 x 62 meters and is 4 to 6 meters at depth. It had around 6,000 slightly larger than life-size depictions of infantrymen (1.8-1.9 metres tall), chariots and horses. The second pit, which is slightly smaller and R-shaped, had around 1,300 figures in it. Pit 3 is concave-shaped and consists of two wing-rooms, a chariot-house and around 70 figures. Judging from the internal layout of pit 3, it should be the headquarters of pit 1 and pit 2. The terracotta warriors can be divided into two categories: soldiers and military officials. Depending on the actual combat requirements, different types of warriors have different equipment. Most of them are clad in fine armors with bronze weapons in hand. The face shape, figure, expression, eyebrows, eyes and age of each terracotta warriors are different. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easy to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Experts confirmed that the material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is the "yellow earth" from around the mausoleum. Yellow earth is a kind of suitable material with good cohesiveness and plasticity. And the addition of grit to the earth enhances its mechanical properties, making it easier to form large figures. The figures of the terracotta warriors were fired in kilns. For even heating, the Qin craftsmen left small holes in the proper places on the figure. During the firing, the craftsmen paid special attention to keeping the heat at 1,000 C (1,830 F). (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

In addition, experts did a lot of experiments and found that during the firing, these figures were placed upside down in the kiln. This was because the upper part of the figure was heavier than the bottom. The terracotta warriors we see today are steel gray without fresh colors, but they actually were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. Though having been buried underground for more than 2,200 years, they remained the bright colors after being unearthed at the beginning. However, because of a lack of technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after firing in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)

Historians theorize that the heads and bodies of warriors were manufactured on an assembly line production. This means that each individual part, such as the arms and legs, were made independently to speed up manufacturing. Then, after fired in the kiln, these different complete parts were assembled into one figure. Since each warrior's face was unique, it is believed that artisans added individual clay features on top of the mold for the face, perhaps based on real soldiers of the time. (Travel China Guide, 2020)--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portray a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be included in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）

The terracotta figures of Qin Dynasty vividly and richly portrayed a variety of figures with certain characters. It is a symbol of the maturity of Chinese ancient molding art. It not only inherited the ceramic tradition of China since the Warring States period, but also laid the foundation for the prosperity of molding art in the Tang Dynasty. It serves as a connecting link between the preceding and the following. It is known as "the eighth wonder of the world" and "the treasure of ancient human spiritual civilization". In 1987, the mausoleum of the first emperor of Qin Dynasty and the pits of terracotta warriors were approved by UNESCO to be listed in the World Heritage List. (百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑）--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

Terrocotta army / Qin Shi Huang’s Buried Sculpture Legion 秦始皇兵马俑

chariot n. 战车

mausoleum n. 陵墓

Qin Shi Huang / Shi Huangdi 秦始皇

Pit 1 一号坑

Pit 2 二号坑

Pit 3 三号坑

kiln n. 窑

Eighth Wonder of the World 世界第八大奇迹

World Heritage List 《世界遗产名录》

===Questions===

1. Why did Qin Shi Huang make the Terracotta Army?

2. How were the Terracotta Army discovered?

3. How many figures are in the Terracotta Army, and has the whole Terracotta Army been discovered?

4. How the terracotta warriors were made?

5. Were the terracotta warriors once colored?

6. Why is the Terracotta Army important?

===Answers===

1. The purpose of Qin Shihuang's construction of the Terracotta Army is to have an army protect his mausoleum after his death.

2. The Terracotta Army was discovered by chance by a group of farmers when they were digging a well.

3. According to the estimate, there are more than 8,000 Terracotta Warriors, including about 6,000 from Pit 1, around 1,300 from Pit 2, and around 70 from Pit 3. However, these may be just a part of the whole Terracotta Army. With development in archeological technologies, it’s expected more Terracotta Warriors will be found in the future.

4. The material used to mold the terracotta warriors and horses is a "yellow earth" sourced from around the burial sites. The heads and bodies of the warriors were made via assembly line production. Artisans used mud to make a rough cast and then put it into kilns.

5. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

6. The Terracotta Warriors were once colored. They were painted with natural pigments refined from minerals. But because of the lack in technologies to preserve the colors, they faded out in just a few minutes once exposed in the air.

===References===

1. Kelly Richman-Abdou. (2020). Unearthing the Importance of the Life-Sized Terracotta Warriors.

2. Mark Cartwright. (2017). Terracotta Army. Ancient History Encyclopedia.

3. Travel China Guide. (2020). What is the Terracotta Army? 10 Things You should Know.

4. 百度百科——秦始皇兵马俑

==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==
'''Penjing'''

Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically formed trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.
Bonsai, also known as penjing, is the ancient Chinese art of depicting artistically trees, other plants, and landscapes in miniature.--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''A.Categories'''

Penjing generally fall into one of three categories:

Penjing generally falls into three categories:--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

1. Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing that focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing that depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）

Shumu penjing (树木盆景): Tree penjing focuses on the depiction of one or more trees and optionally other plants in a container, with the composition's dominant elements shaped by the creator through trimming, pruning, and wiring.2. Shanshui penjing (山水盆景): Landscape penjing depicts a miniature landscape by carefully selecting and shaping rocks, which are usually placed in a container in contact with water. Small live plants are placed within the composition to complete the depiction.3. Shuihan penjing (水旱盆景): A water and land penjing style that effectively combines the first two, including miniature trees and optionally miniature figures and structures to portray a landscape in detail.（百度百科：盆景的种类）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''B.History'''

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago.People already know that plants were planted in bonsai to enjoy the scenery. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to determine the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later.Powerful cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the differences between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai were more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape was achieved in Yuan Dynasty, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, the category of bonsai was more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai, drought bonsai, water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearances further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）

China has a long history of bonsai, dating back to the Neolithic Age, about eight or nine thousand years ago. At that time, People already knew that plants can be planted in bonsai for enjoyment. In the Neolithic site of Hemudu in Yuyao County, Zhejiang Province, a piece of pottery with potted plants was found, which is believed to be the earliest evidence to prove the origin of bonsai. In the Western Han Dynasty, When Zhang Qian was on a mission to the Western Regions, in order to introduce the pomegranates from the Western regions to the central Plains, he adopted the method of potted pomegranates, which is the earliest record of potted plants in China so far. In the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the literati of the six dynasties pursued the artistic conception of landscape beauty, developed the pattern of one pool and three mountains in the garden design of the Han Dynasty, introduced nature into the garden, and pursued poetic painting, which laid a good foundation for the prosperity of bonsai in the Tang and Song dynasties and later. Cultural prosperity in the Tang Dynasty, promoted the growth of bonsai art at that time, both the court and the folk, making enjoying bonsai makers try to become a fashion by using the theory of landscape painting creation will be combined into rocks and plants bonsai, strengthened the potted landscape artistic conception beauty in the Tang Dynasty. The bonsai of Song Dynasty developed further on the basis of inheriting the bonsai of the Tang Dynasty, and the difference between tree bonsai and landscape bonsai was more clear.
The miniaturization of miniascape in Yuan Dynasty was achieved, which promoted the popularization and promotion of miniascape. Ming and Qing Dynasties, bonsai category is more diverse, in addition to the landscape bonsai drought bonsai water drought bonsai, there are also set with gold and jade bonsai. They are made of gold, ivory, gem cloisonne and other precious materials, which are noble and elegant, their appearance further enriched the types of ancient bonsai.（2017，菖蒲寿石斋）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''C.Techniques and Care'''

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirement for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）

Leaf trimming: the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree)or needles from a bonsai's trunk and branches.
Pruning: prune the trunk, branches, and roots of the candidate tree.
Clamping: using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches.
Grafting: Putting new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) into a prepared area on the trunk or under the bark of the tree.
Defoliation: It can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.
Watering must be regular and must relate to the bonsai species' requirements for dry, moist, or wet soil.
Repotting must occur at intervals dictated by the vigour and age of each tree.
Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai.
Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components.
Location and overwintering are species-dependent when the bonsai is kept outdoors as different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.（2018，盆栽管）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

'''D. In Other Culture'''

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsai are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）

Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Japanese traditions of bonsai and saikei, as well as the miniature living landscapes of Vietnamese hòn non bộ. Generally speaking, tree penjing specimens differ from bonsai by allowing a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots. In contrast, bonsais are more simplified in shape (more "minimal" in appearance) with larger-in-proportion trunks, and are planted in unobtrusive, low-sided containers with simple lines and muted colors.While saikei depicts living landscapes in containers, like water and land penjing, and it does not use miniatures to decorate the living landscape. Hòn non bộ focuses on depicting landscapes of islands and mountains, usually in contact with water, and decorated with live trees and other plants. Like water and land penjing, hòn non bộ specimens can feature miniature figures, vehicles, and structures. Distinctions among these traditional forms have been blurred by some practitioners outside of Asia, as enthusiasts explore the potential of local plant and pot materials without strict adherence to traditional styling and display guidelines.（维基百科）--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 12:51, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===
*miniature小型的，缩小的
*trimming 修剪
*pruning 剪枝
*the Neolithic Age 石器时代
*pomegranate 石榴
*literali 文人
*clamping 折枝成型

===Question===
*Have you ever raise any plants?
*How do you know about Bonsai (or Penjing)?
*What about the techniques of raising bonsai?
*From which dynasty, bonsai emerged in China?
*What are the differences about bonsai in China and other countries?

===Answers===
*Yes, I have raised plants like orange tree in my backyard.
*It is one of the Chinese traditional art forms, whose elements are based on plants and stone.
*We can use the technique named clamping to shape the branches of the plant in order to beautify it.
*The Han Dynasty
*Penjing allows a wider range of tree shapes (more "natural-looking") and by planting them in bright-colored and creatively shaped pots.

===References===
[1]百度百科：盆景的种类

[2]百度百科：盆景修建技巧，2018，盆栽管

[3]搜狐网：盆景的历史渊源，2017，菖蒲寿石斋

[4]Wekipedia: The difference of Chinese penjing and other countries

==Zhang Weihong 张维虹 202070080648 英语口译 ==

===Douyin (Tik Tok) ===

====A. Overview of Douyin and Tik Tok ====
Douyin, (抖音, literally “shaking sound” in Chinese) is a short video media app developed by China’s young tech giant Bytedance (字节跳动). It is a platform for creating and sharing 15-second videos. The contents cover a wide range of topics such as challenges-tackling and funny anecdotes. “It is one of the few applications that has enjoyed wild popularity inside and outside China.” (Hans Tung; 2018:1-2)

In September 2017, the international version of Douyin, Tik Tok, was launched. Although both Douyin and Tick Tok were developed by the same parent company, they are actually not one and the same. “Depending on the types of the app stores, you will only have access to one version of the app, Douyin in Chinese app stores and Tik Tok in overseas ones.” (Wang Ning, 2019: 11-12) The two apps host completely different content, and the content is not shared between them. However, they both offer a wide selection of sounds and song snippets, along with the option of special effects and filters.

What’s more, the mode of both Douyin and Tik Tok is similar. According to Liang’s description of Douyin,“The platform is based on ultra-short, user-posted videos with music. Such clips are lasting only 15 seconds but can be strung together to make 60-second stories.” (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21) The app allows users to create, edit, and share short videos as well as livestreams, often featuring music in the background. Contents themed on dances, comedies, babies, food, pets, pranks, and stunts are most welcomed on Douyin. (Tian Fengchang, 2020: 15-17) In their videos, users can interact with the camera and sing at the same time, with songs provided by Douyin’s extensive music library. Showing off dance skills and comedy routines are also popular pastimes on the app.

Unlike most video apps, there is no “play” or “pause” button on Douyin. Once you open the app, a video starts immediately. You scroll through a 15-second stream of videos nonstop, as does how you look through photos on Instagram. Therefore, many people can't help spending most of their spare time on the For You Page. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

Unlike other popular Chinese apps like Weibo and WeChat, where you have to actively follow specific accounts to be pushed toward their content, Douyin identifies users’ interests through a powerful recommendation algorithm that tracks the users' preferences through their browser history. This is the way how the algorithm works—anticipating what users will enjoy based on the content they have already engaged with. It also shows content it thinks could go viral. The point is that if the content is good the algorithm will fulfill its "duty", regardless of how many followers the creator has. (Liang Quancun, 2019: 20-21)

====B. Comparison Between Tik Tok and Instagram ====
As what was mentioned before, Tik Tok or Douyin is somehow similar to Instagram. Despite their alike fundamentals, they have their own distinctive features. Differences between them are as follows:

1. Time limit: Tik Tok currently does not support a long-form video. While IGTV, Instagram’s long-form video feature, allows a video length of up to one hour. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

2. Users: Most Tik Tok users are younger than that of Instagram. According to Carissa Brones, “Most Tik Tok users belong to generation Z and most Instagram users belong to generation Y.” (TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020)

3. Community: Compared to Instagram, the Tik Tok community is distinctly palpable. It allows users to easily connect, build friendships, and collab with each other. Besides, something new and trendy is pushed to the users every week, so as to further increase its attention. Therefore, some creators have identified this supportive environment to grow followers and have left Instagram for Tik Tok. (Carissa Brones, 2019)

====C. Popularity and Effects ====
It’s clear that Tik Tok is making waves in the social app space. With an explosion of growth, Tik Tok is expected to continue a steep upward trend. Several reasons why Tik Tok is so popular include:

1. Localized content - the app often runs local contests and challenges and captures local trends using localized hashtags. Douyin also sends personalised recommendations to each of its users. This ensures that Douyin users are always updated on the latest trending videos and are never out of ideas for video creation. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

2. Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing - due to the short format, neither the video-creation nor the watching process takes much time or effort. Also, the short-form video content plays as soon as a user opens the app. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

3. Celebrity endorsements - several celebrities, including Angelababy from China, Jimmy Fallon from American, have helped drive Tik Tok's popularity. (Wang Ning, 2019: 14-15)

There is no doubt that Tik Tok has had an impact on today’s world. It has become prevalent in schools, in the workplace, and in many other public venues. It is quite common to find someone either making a Tik Tok or doing one of the Tik Tok dances. (Wang Ning, 2019: 15-16) Here are some benefits of Tik Tok:

1. Moral Entertainment: The major advantage of Tik Tok is that it serves as a great source of entertainment. Overall, Tik Tok is a great app to help stay entertained, especially during the stress of the pandemic. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

2. Publicity: With Tik Tok, anyone can create short videos doing anything they choose to do that’s appropriate and legal to ensnare the public interest and become viral in society.

3. Learning New Things: On top of the funny videos and the dancing videos, there are some people that make videos with great opportunities and life tips that can help many people. Also, there are other people like doctors or teachers on Tik Tok utilizing the platform to teach new things every day. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

4. Providing New Opportunities: With the ongoing pandemic, young students such as high schoolers have been finding remote volunteering and internship opportunities directly from Tik Tok. As an engaging platform, Tik Tok connects determined youths together to volunteer for nonprofits like Chinese Red Cross Foundation or intern for companies. (Wang Ning, 2019: 20-21)

Despite the many benefits of TikTok however, there are negative effects to take into consideration as well. there are as follows:

1. Addiction: Most people scroll through the for you page looking at videos perfectly catered to their tastes through the TikTok algorithm. The app is designed to be addictive, with an unlimited stream of videos at around 30 seconds each, making users hard to get bored. It’s incredibly easy to fall down the TikTok hole and suddenly reemerge hours later only to find have lost an entire day. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

2. Bullying/Mental Health: While the application can be used to spread positivity, it can also be used as a platform for bullying. Some people criticize other people’s videos, while others create videos for deriding someone. This leads to a negative impact on the mental health of everyone involved, thus resulting in life-threatening situations and decisions. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

3. Unsafe: On TikTok, there are no restrictions as to who can join the app, so strangers can easily message children and create harmful situations. (Short Video Platform - Douyin)

In a nutshell, TikTok is a fun, entertaining, and addictive app which has seen a surge in popularity in the last few months. The Tik Tok app also has the potential to become the next big social networking platform. However, the app also aroused lots of concerns like addiction, mental health and unsafe issues. (Tian Xiaofang, 2019)

[[File:Tik Tok.jpg]]

===Terms and Expressions===
Tik Tok (Douyin) 抖音

ByteDance 字节跳动

Short video platforms 短视频平台

Recommendation algorithm 推荐算法

Celebrity endorsements 名人代言

Chinese Red Cross Foundation 中国红十字基金会

Mental health 心理健康

===Questions and Answers===
Q1. What is Tik Tok？

Q2. What is different between Douyin to Tik Tok?

Q3. Why Tik Tok is so popular around the world?

Q4. What are the benefits of Tik Tok?

Q5. What are the concerns about Tik Tok?

A1: Tik Tok is a short-form, video-sharing app that allows users to create and share 15-second videos on any topic.

A2: They are two different versions that can be downloaded in different regions -- Douyin in China, and Tik Tok overseas.

A3: Celebrity endorsements, Localized content, Easy content creation, sharing, and viewing.

A4: Tik Tok can bring moral entertainment and publicity providing new opportunities. Additionally, People can learn new things.

A5: Many worried that Tik Tok is addictive, bad for mental health, and unsafe.

===References===
* Carissa Brones. Instagram vs. Tik Tok: App Battle 2019

* Hans Tung. 8 Lessons from the Rise of Douyin. 2018

* Liang Quancun梁全存.“抖音”短视频发展战略研究[Research on the Development Strategy of Tik Tok ][D].北京:北京交通大学[Beijing Jiao Tong University],2019.

* Tian Fengchang, Huang Xiaozhang 田丰畅，黄孝章. 基于SWOT分析的抖音短视频研究[Research of SWOT Analysis Based on Tik Tok][J].中国商论[China Business], 2020(22):15-17.

* Tian Xiaofang 田小芳. 从传播学角度分析抖音短视频的爆红[Analysis of the popularity of Tik Tok from a communication perspective ] [J].现代营销(信息版),[ Modern Marketing (Information Edition),] 2019(06):214-215.

* TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues, 2020

* WANG N. Data story of Tiktok[J]. 2019.

* Wu W. Chinese Animation, Creative Industries, and Digital Culture[M]. Routledge, 2017.

* Xiao B, Koetse M. Chinese Arts Students into Panic Mode after Failing to Register for Exams Amid Announced Reforms[J].

* Xing Lu, Lu ZHicong, 2019, Fifteen Seconds of Fame: A Qualitative Study of Douyin, A Short Video Sharing Mobile Application in China

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==

==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳 202070080649==

===Four Buddhist Shrines===

Buddism is one of the most important religions in China. As the introduction of Buddhism from India in Han Dynasty, China initiated temple construction and sites of enlightenment and continues today. The Buddhist culture in China went through long history of growth and prosperity,which ultimately turns into historical appeal and cultural charm together with the attractive natural scenery where they pullulated and achieved fame throughout the world. Among the numerous famous Buddha Mountains in China, the most sacred four called Four Buddhist Shrines, are known as Gold Wutai, Silver Putuo, Copper Emei and Iron Jiuhua respectively for they believed to be the holy seats Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva reincarnated to tame certain beings.(Gan Shude, 1998)

===Mount Wutai===

Gold Wutai, also called Wutaishan, Mount Wutai, or Mount Qingliang in Chinese, is a National Natural and Cultural Heritage, National Geopark, as well as the only Buddhist sanctuary Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism coexist in perfect harmony. Mount Wutai is located in Wutai County, Xinzhou City, Northeast of Shanxi province in China and is called the top buddhist holy land. Mount Wutai tops the four great mountains of Buddhism for its long history and grandness of temples. It also known as one of the Top 5 Buddhism shrines in the world with Lumpini in Nepal and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India. It is the ashram of Manjusri Bodhisattva who is the god of wisdom in China. Buddhism propagated into Mount Wutai from the Eastern Han Dynasty and culminated in Southern and Northern Dynasty when emperors extended temples on a large scale to over 200. The second blossom of Buddhism came during the flourishing Tang Dynasty during which there were more than 30,000 Buddha statues made. There are five main peaks of Wutai Mountain, including Wanghai Peak, Yedou Peak, Guayue Peak, Splendid Peak and Cuiyan Peak. A large number of temples which are the treasury of precious cultural heritage attract thousands of tourists every year,including Xiantong Temple, Nanchan Temple, Foguang Temple and etc. The Great White Tower is the most famous symbol of Mount Wutai lying in Tayuan Temple. （Lu Yao 2011,87）

===Mount Putuo===

Silver Putuo, ashram of Avalokiteśvara ( Goddess of Mercy), lies in a 13 square kilometers small island of Zhejiang Province in southeast China. Silver Putuo,also named Mount Putuo, owns the honor of Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea. It is a National 5A Tourist Resort and a world excellent ecological scenic spot with charming island scenery and unique Buddhist charisma of temples, sculptures and etc. Taoism is the earliest religion cultivated on Mount Putuo 2,000 years ago from Qin Dynasty. And Buddhism only get spread on Mount Putuo in Tang Dynasty and later rose to the peak during later Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the largest Buddhist Kingdom of ancient China with over 4,000 monks. The three main sacred Buddhist temples are Puji Temple which is the Buddhism center of important Buddhist fairs on Mount Putuo and the biggest temple worshipping Goddess of Mercy on foothill, Fayu Temple which is the second largest temple in most noble and delicate decoration on hillside, and Huiji Temple which is a beautiful garden style temple located the highest on hilltop. The Purple Bamboo Woods is an tourist-attractive scenery point where popele can enjoy the picturesque landsacape around and experience the Buddhist culture. （Jing Tianxing, 2008）

===Mount Emei===

Copper Emei refers to Mount Emei in Sichuan province. It is the ashram of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva who is the god of practice in China. Mount Emei usually refers to the Da’e Peak of Mount Emei Scenic Area, the highest peak among the four most sacred Buddhist mountains. It is listed both as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage among the four Buddhist mountains. By the middle of 1st century, Buddhism spread into Mount Emei from India though Silk Road. Then Wannian Temple (previously known as Puxian Temple) was constructed in the 3rd century, and more than 100 Buddhist temples were built afterwards, making Sichuan a Buddha center for a time. The giant bronze statue of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva in Wannian Temple was casted after a Buddhists group learnt Buddhism from India in Song Dynasty. Mount Emei is not only famous for its Buddhist treasures and precious cultural relics, but also for its four great natural spectacles of sunrise, clouds sea, golden summit and light of Buddha from the mountaintops at Golden Summit. Just the same as other Buddhist shrines, there are many temples such as Baoguo Temple, Wannian Temple, Fuhu Temple...(Gan Shude,1998）

===Mount Jiuhua===

Iron Jiuhua refers to Mount Jiuhua in Southern Anhui province. It is known as the shrine Ksitigarbha Buddha who is the god of willings and one of the four most sacred Buddhist mountains in China. It was initially named Mount Jiuzi and was latter renamed to Mount Jiuhua according to a poem by great poet Li Bai during Tang Dynasty - nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. The first religion developed in Mount Jiuhua was Chinese Taoism. Until the middle and late of Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was gradually accepted and spread in Mount Jiuhua along with construction of more Buddhist temples. There are 78 sites which contains precious Buddhist statues, scriptures and antiques, including Huacheng Temple which is the ashram of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva as well as the ancestral temple of longest history, Tiantai Temple, Longevity Palace, Zhiyuan Temple and etc.（Chen chi,2004）

===Terms and Expressions===

Buddhist adj.佛教的

Buddhism n.佛教

shrine n.圣地

pullulate v.大量产生

Gold Wutai 金五台

Silver Putuo 银普陀

Copper Emei 铜峨眉

Iron Jiuhua 铁九华

Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩萨

Avalokitesvara 观音菩萨

Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普贤菩萨

Ksitigahba Buddhisattva 地藏菩萨

reincarnate v. 使转世，使化身

ashram n. 修行的住所

Lumpini n. 蓝毗尼

Sarnath n. 鹿野苑

Buddha-gaya n. 菩提伽耶

Kushinagar n. 拘尸那罗

Wanghai Peak 望海峰

Yedou Peak 叶斗峰

Guayue Peak 挂月峰

Splendid Peak 锦绣峰

Cuiyan Peak 翠岩峰

Xiantong Temple 显通寺

Nanchan Temple 南禅寺

Foguang Temple 佛光寺

The Great White Tower 大白塔

Puji Temple 普济寺

Fayu Temple 法雨寺

Huiji Temple 惠济寺

The Purple Bamboo Woods 紫竹林

Wannian Temple 万年寺

Baoguo Temple 报国寺

Fuhu Temple 伏虎寺

Golden Summit 金顶

Huacheng Temple 化城寺

Tiantai Temple 天台寺

Longevity Palace 百岁宫

Zhiyuan Temple 祗园寺

nimbus is divided to two kinds, sacred mountain generates nine glories to praise the beauty of Mount Jiuhua. -By Libai

妙有分二气，灵山开九华。—李白

===Questions===

1.What are the Four Buddhist Shrines or the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ?

2.Which bodhissattvas' holy seats are the four mountains belong to respectively?

3.Which provinces are the Four Buddhist Shrines in respectivly?

4.What are the top five Buddhist shrines in the world?

5.Among the Four Buddhist Shrines, which one has the honor of "The Buddhist Kingdom on the Sea"?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet Libai?

6.Among the Four Buddhidt Shrines, Whose name is related with the Poet [[Li Bai]]?--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Answers===

1. They are Mount Wutai, Mount Putuo, Mount Jiuhua, Mount Emei.

2. They are Manjusri Bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva and Ksitigahba Buddhisattva.

3. Mount Wutai is in Shanxi province. Mount Putuo is in Zhejiang province. Mount Emei is in Sichuan province. Mount Jiuhua is in Anhui province.

4. Mount Wutai in China, Lumpini in Nepal, and Sarnath, Buddha-gaya and Kushinagar in India.

5. Mount Putuo.

6. Mount Jiuhua.

===References===

1.Gan Shude 干树德.(1998).“中国佛教四大名山”之说由何而来?[J] ''Where did the Theory of "Four Famous Mountains of Chinese Buddhism" Come from?'' Knowledege of Literature and History 文史知识,1998(02):76-81.

2. Lu Yao 路遥. (2011).《四大菩萨与民间信仰》 ''The Four Bodhisattvas and Folk Belifes''. Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社.

3. Jing Tianxing 景天星. (2019).汉传佛教四大菩萨及其应化道场演变考述[J] ''Research on the Four Great Bodhisattvas and the Evolution of Their Shrines''. World religion studies世界宗教研究 2019(04):60-70.

4. https://www.chinadiscovery.com/articles/four-sacred-buddhist-mountains-in-china.html

5.Chen Chi 陈迟.(2014) 《明清四大佛教名山的形成及寺院历史变迁》''The Formation of the Four Famous Buddhist Mountains in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the Historical Changes of Temples''博士学位论文Doctoral Dissertation, Tsinghua University 清华大学.

--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 03:05, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Science and Technology, Compass - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625, MTI英语笔译==
===Compass===
Compass, together with papermaking, gunpowder and printing was referred to the Four Great Inventions, celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical significance. Compass, as one of the advanced scientific technologies in ancient China, has made great contributions to the navigation undertaking both in China and the rest of the world. China was the first one to find the magnetism that could guide the polarity, use the polarity in the earth's magnetic field and invent the instrument that could guide the directions (Lu and Huang 1995,1). The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature, ''Devil Valley Master'', was found in the 4th century BC. It recorded that "The lodestone makes iron come, or it attracts it" (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94).

The earliest south-pointing device appeared in the Warring States Period. It seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth bronze plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. Therefore, people all called it "south-governor" or Si Nan. However, in the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects. Therefore, the south-governor has not been applied in a wide range. (Lu and Huang 1995,3-4)

In the Song Dynasty, the book ''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles''), written by Zeng Gongliang and Ding Du in 1044, recorded a magnetic device used as a "direction finder", called "south-pointing fish". It made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth's magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south. The device was recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night". Although it effectively avoided the shortcomings of the south-governor, the magnetism acquired from the magnetic field was weak, resulting in the decrease in practical values. (Lu and Huang 1995,4)

In the South Song Dynasty, the book ''Dream Pool Essays'' written by Shen Kuo recorded the first magnetic needle compass, which was the combination of the magnetic needle and plate. This kind of compass had meridian indicator needle, which directed the south and the north. There are two types of magnetic needle compass, that is wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass. The wet suspension compass was used with its needle floating on the water (Lu and Huang 1995,11). And the dry suspension compass was a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax. When floating, the needle at the tail would always point at the northern cardinal direction. (China's Foreign Trade 2012，94)

Compass, as a tool for guiding the direction, has played an important role in people's daily life and in the navigation undertaking. At the beginning, the compass was used for geomancy (prognostication) to determine the best location and time for things such as burials and weddings. It is recorded that Qin emperor used a diving board and compass in his royal court to affirm his right to the throne. The original shape of the compass led people to believe that the square plate symbolized the earth and the round disc symbolized the heaven. And around the round disc, there engraved the Eight Trigrams, the 24 directions (based on the constellations) and the 28 constellations (based on the constellations dividing the Equator). Although the geomancy was a superstition, the compass was endowed with the wishful thinking of the people. Nowadays many people still use the concept of Feng Shui to decide the location of buildings and enterprises as well as the auspicious time for open ceremonies. (China Week 2003,35)

Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings. However, relying on the celestial phenomena posed another problem. When the navigators met the rainy days, they were unable to distinguish the directions according to the celestial phenomena. The appearance of compass made up for the defect. The compass used for navigation started from the end of Northern Song Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, it was with the compass that the navigator, Zheng He, could made seven voyages to the western countries. The voyages expanded the foreign trade and promoted the exchanges of economy and cultures between China and western countries. The compass has played an important role in providing guidance.(Lu and Huang 1995,12-13)

The compass was introduced to the Arab world and Europe during the Northern Song Dynasty (China Week 2003,35). After the compass entered into the Europe, the Europeans further improved the compass and invented the dry compass with fixed support. Until the 16th century, they invented the gimbal to keep the dry compass in a horizontal level. The application of compass in Europe promoted the coming of the age of sail. The great philosopher Marx pointed that Europe opened the global market and established the colony via the compass.(Lu and Huang 1995,16)

[[File:Ming_Compass.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass, Public Domain license by Wikimedia. Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Great_Inventions#/media/File:Ming-marine-compass.jpg] for original source.]]

===References===
*"FOUR Great Inventions" [四大发明]. ''China's Foreign Trade'' [《中国外贸》].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].05(2012).
*"Compass, One of the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China" [指南针——中国四大发明之一]. ''China Week'' [《中华周刊》]. China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House [中国学术期刊电子出版社].04(2003).
*鲁才全Lu Caiquan，黄惠贤Huang Huixian. 《中华文明光耀寰宇中国古代的“四大发明”及中华医药学》 [''Chinese Civilization Shines in the World, The "Four Great Inventions" and Traditional Chinese Medicine'']. 武汉：武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan University Press].1995.

===Terms and Expressions===
*Four Great Inventions 四大发明
*''Devil Valley Master'' 鬼谷子
*lodestone 天然磁石
*south-governor 司南
*''Wu Jing Zong Yao'' (''General Military Principles'') 《武经总要》
*Zeng Gongliang 曾公亮
*Ding Du 丁度
*south-pointing fish 指南鱼
*''Dream Pool Essays'' 《梦溪笔谈》
*wet suspension compass 水罗盘
*dry compass 旱罗盘
*Eight Trigrams 八卦
*gimbal 常平架

===Questions===
*What's the earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature?
*When did the earliest south-pointing device appear?
*Why had the south-governor not been applied in a wide range?
*What are the differences between the south-governor and the south-pointing fish?
*What are the two types of magnetic needle compass?
*What's the symbol of the original shape of the compass?
*What did the navigator depend on before the invention of the compass?

===Answers===
*The earliest reference was ''Devil Valley Master'', found in the 4th century BC.
*In the Warring States Period.
*In the process of making the south-governor, the lodestone was easy to lose its magnetism due to vibration. Besides, when rotating on the plate, it produced huge friction and resistance, which affected its effects.
*The south-governor seemed like a spoon made by lodestone. With round bottom, it could rotate freely in the smooth plate. When it stopped, the handle of the spoon would guide the South. While the south-pointing fish was made by thin iron slice and was magnetized by the earth’s magnetic field. When people made use of it, they could float it in a bowl of water to guide the south.
*Wet suspension compass and dry suspension compass.
*The square plate symbolizes earth and the circular disc symbolizes heaven.
*Before the invention of compass, navigators usually depended on the positions of the sun, the moon and the polestar to take their bearings.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

== Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio Zhang Yujie张毓婕 ==

''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'', abbreviated as "Liao Zhai", is a collection of short stories in classical Chinese created by Chinese Qing Dynasty novelist Pu Songling. The earliest copy of it can date back to the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty.

===1. The Introduction of the Author-Pu Songling===
Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his home. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he included many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.

Pu Songling was born in a scholarly family. In his early years, he wanted to take part in the imperial examinations to become an official. Unfortunately, after repeated attempts, he could only make a living by teaching. He had been interested in folk stories about ghosts and gods since he was a child. In order to collect materials, Pu Songling once opened a teahouse in front of his house. People who come to drink tea can use a story to replace tea money. Each time he was told a wonderful story, Pu Songling would polish it after he went home. In this way, Pu Songling collected a large number of bizarre stories, and after sorting and processing, he put many of them in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''
--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. Contents and Themes===
The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types:

One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.

In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.

The whole book of ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' has nearly 500 chapters which can be divided into three types:

One is the love story, which occupies the largest proportion of the book. Most of the main characters in these stories are not afraid of feudal ethics and bravely pursue free love. Representative works of this type include ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head'' and so on. The second is to criticize the imperial examination system for its destruction of scholars. ''Ye Sheng'', ''Si Wen Lang'', ''Yu Qu E'' and ''Wang Zian'' are all such works. The third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people, which is of great social significance, such as ''Xi Fangping'', ''Promoting Weaving'', ''Dream Wolf'', and ''Mei Girl''.

Pu Songling himeself suffered from his repeated failure in the imperial examination. In despair, Pu Songling expressed his desire for a better future with fantasy fairies, ghosts and fox spirits. He reflected the real life and put forward many important social problems. He strongly criticized the shortcomings of the examination system, the spirit of feudal ethics, and supported for free love.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. A Typical Story===
Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.

Qiao Sheng, a native of Jinning(a place in Yunnan Province), was a honest young man with outstanding talents. At that time, a wealthy middle-aged man wanted to choose a son-in-law for his daughter, Lian Cheng. Although Qiao Sheng was very poor, he was appreciated by Lian Cheng because of his integrity and talents, but Lian Cheng was forced to be engaged to the son of a salt merchant. Soon afterwards Lian Cheng got a strange disease and the only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat. Lian Cheng’s father was extremely worried and promised to marry his daughter to whoever agreed to save her. Without hesitation, Qiao Sheng came to Lian Cheng and cut off the meat from his chest. But after Lian Cheng recovered from her illness, her father broke his word and refused to marry Lian Cheng to Qiao Sheng. In a few months, Lian Cheng died of sadness. Qiao went to mourn before her death, and also died of excessive grief. In the underworld, the two met again. With the help of a friend, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng both came back to life. However, the salt merchant bribed the judge and he sentenced Lian Cheng to marry the son of the salt merchant. Lian Cheng did not eat and drink at the salt merchant’s home, and she even tried to hang herself. The salt merchant had no choice but to let Lian Cheng go home. In the end, Qiao Sheng and Lian Cheng had a happy ending.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:23, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Features of the Book===
4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.

4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

4.1 The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

4.2 Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

4.3 The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning.

4.4 Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Terms and Expressions===

teahouse 茶馆

scholarly family书香世家

imperial examination 科举制度

underworld 阴曹地府

fox spirit 狐妖

salt merchant 盐商

forgetting to be alien 忘为异类

===Questions===

1.How many chapters are there in the Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio?

2.How did Pu Songling collect stories from others?

3.Do you know the types of the stories in this book?

4.Please list some representative works of love story in this book.

5.In the typical story, when Lian Cheng was ill, what was the only way to save her?

6.Could you please list one or two features of the book?

===Answers===
1. Nearly 500.

2. Pu Songling opened a teahouse in front of his home and let people who come to drink tea use a story to replace tea money.

3. One is love story, the second is to criticize the imperial examination system and the third is to expose the brutality of the ruling class and their oppression of the people.

4. ''Lotus Fragrant'', ''Xiao Xie'', ''Lian Cheng'', ''Huan Niang'', ''Crow Head''.

5. The only way to save her was to make a kind of medicine with an adult man's chest meat.

6. The stories are bizarre and full of changes. The author uses fairies and ghosts to describe the human society, making the novels mysterious and bizarre. What’s more, readers are captivated by the twist and turn of the plot.

Making the plants and animals full of natural characters and the features of the human. The heroines of these novels have both human thoughts and feelings as well as the features of animal’s appearance. The author perfectly unifies the two to achieve the effect of "forgetting to be alien".

The languages are concise and comprehensive, pregnant with meaning widely.

Using a lot of descriptions of environment, appearance, and mentality as well as vivid languages to create distinctive characters. For example, Ying Ning, a female character in the book, was living in a courtyard with lively birds and the fragrance of colorful flowers, and her living room was bright and clean. The environment was in harmony with her beautiful appearance and innocent temperament.

===References===

==Four Main Philosophic Schools-张宇星 Zhang Yuxing 202070080650 MTI 英语口译==

===Confucianism===

In the Pre-Qin period, scholars from different schools were gathering together to share their opinions toward the same issues and tried to figure out the best way to solve problems at that time, forming a famous situation of “One-hundred schools of thought”. Among them, Confucianism, with representative figures of Confucius, Mencius and Xunzi, was prominent and has caught many attentions (Chen Jianhua, 2020, 43). Even at present, it is also one of the most important schools with far-reaching influence in Chinese history of thought.

Confucius is the founder of Confucianism. Living in the Spring and Autumn Period with many contradictions in the society, Confucius acknowledged those turbulences and wars threatening the traditional culture as more and more common people suspected, even criticized, the traditional culture, therefore, Confucius aimed to rebuild the balance in mind and seek for the new harmony in the society by reshaping people’s mind, which was the general background of the emergency of Confucianism (Liu Shiyu, 2018, 80). However, to establish a school and cure people’s mind is a tough work, especially at that time, as Emperor Shi Huangdi promoted legalism and prohibited Confucianism. In order to govern the whole nation, unified mind was essential, so the emperor even buried many disciples committed to Confucianism and incinerated many masterpiece, causing profoundly negative effect, which was famous as “Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars” (“焚书坑儒”).

However, as Confucianism was the treasure of traditional Chinese culture consisting quite a few thoughts with far-reaching meaning in our life, it was boasted by Dong Zhongshu in Han Dynasty. As Confucianism had some flaws in Pre-Qin Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu integrated part of thought from Legalism and Daoism to further its development (Ren Anjing, 2020, 54), and applied it in the governance. Since then, the model of governing the country with Confucian ethics and morality as the center, with the strict punishment of the jurist as the auxiliary with Taoist power politics as the means, basically conformed to the national conditions of ancient China, and became the ruling class of all dynasties to pursue the unchanged rule of the country.

In Confucianism, benevolence stands in the center. It proposes that the governor should love and be kind to his people. Only in that way, he could govern the whole nation as long as possible and the nation could survive whatever disaster it encountered as well. In our daily life, Confucianism has its cues in every part of life, and we also advocate Confucianism and regulate our behaviors according to it.

===Taoism or Daoism===

Taoism also named for Daoism. Its representative figures are world-renowned Chinese thinkers: Lao-Tzu and Zhuang Zhou. There are quite a few famous masterworks of Taoism, among which the most famous is Tao Te Ching (《道德经》) (Song Liyan, 2020, 10). Although Confucianism has far-reaching influence on Chinese society, Daoism also stands prominently in the history of Chinese thought as it has the deepest influence on the development of Chinese philosophy, literature, science and technology, art, music, health, religion and so on, so we need to know it comprehensively.

First, the same with Confucianism, Taoism also emerged in the Pre-Qin Dynasty and was part of “One-Hundred School of Thoughts (百家争鸣)”. And in the Spring and Autumn Period, Lao-Tzu concluded the quintessence of scattered thoughts about Daoism into a systematic thought, which symbolizes the form of Daoism. After Lao-Tzu, the school of Daoism was divided into different part, with Huang-Lao Thought being the most famous among others. Then, Lu Buwei compiled “Lü shih ch'un ch'iu” (《吕氏春秋》), also referred to The Annuals of Lu Buwei, which set Daoism as its main thought and integrated other schools, landing the preparation for the great unity then(Ren Anjing, 2020, 55).

However, after the foundation of Qin-Dynasty, Emperor Shi Huangdi turned to Legalism. In the Han Dynasty, the governor selected Daoism as the official thought to unify the whole nation, which symbolized the its resurgence, and even Dong Zhongshu absorbed the positive points of Daoism and integrated them into Confucianism in his governance. When it came to Sui and Tang Dynasty, Daoism became prominent once again as Wang Yangming and other important figures combined its thought with Buddhism. At present, the thought of Daoism also present in our life, especially in management and business.

===Legalism===

Legalism is a famous school of thought in Chinese history with the rule of law at its core. Unlike Confucianism and Daoism, people promoting Legalism are not only ideologists, but also activists focusing on the practical use of laws or regulations.

Legalism was born quite late, but it came to take its form very quickly as Emperor Shi Huangdi initiated the period of governing the country according to the rule of law, falling into the category of Legalism. Since then, each monarch, to some extent, follows this principle. In this way, Legalism keeps its status and influences Chinese governance greatly (He Lele, 2020, 59). Even at present, we still promote the rule of law as it can ensure the fairness and justice of the judgment and safeguard the common people at large. Legalism advocates clear rewards and punishments according to laws and regulations. To that end, Provisions should not be set arbitrary, rather, it should be clear and explicit with official formulation, and governments are responsible for informing common people so as to ensure that everyone has known that and would follow regulations.

===Mohism===

Mohism, also referred to Moism and developed by academic scholars studying under the leadership of ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, was one of the four main philosophic schools from around 770–221 BC (during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism. Different from three schools listed above, Mohism focuses on natural science and logic, rational thought (Chen Jun, 2020, 145). A tradition of Mohism, a disciplined group, goes that disciples in official states, wherever he is, should promote the school’s proposition in his or her official states, and their salary must also be dedicated to the group.
The development of Mohism has former and later period with different focus. The early thought mainly involves the social politics, ethics and the ideology, paying attention to the present world war, and the latter contributed greatly in logic, closer to the field of scientific research. The main ideas of Mohism are equal love between people (Jian Ai) and against the war of aggression (Fei Gong). They also advocate economy, oppose waste (Jie Yong), attach importance to inheriting the cultural wealth of their fore-owners (Ming Gui), master the laws of nature (Tian zhi) and so on.

During the Warring States Period, Mohism mastered many practical techniques which were useful for the development of society, so it has attracted quite a few people to follow him. Even at present, it is widely accepted that top two influential schools of thought fall in Confucianism and Mohism (Zhou Baoyan, 2020, 53). However, as Mohism promoted itself political status, many monarchs oppressed its development. Gradually, it lost the foundation of survive and came to extinct. Scholars failed to re-dig out the its precious thoughts from historical records until the end of the Qing Dynasty, After the arduous efforts of its disciples in recent years, the basic growing course has been found out, and the theories and thought appeared to recover and catch many scholars’ attention with self-advancement.

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3. 王木林. 先秦儒家经济伦理思想阐释[J]. 山西财政税务专科学校学报, 2020(4): 45-47,51.

4. 刘世宇. 命名与秩序——先秦儒家“名”思想引论[J]. 北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2018(5): 73-81.

5. 吴全兰. 论道家思想对西汉以儒学为主导的意识形态的补充与调节[J]. 中原文化研究, 2020(6): 20-27.

6. 任安静. 探析儒家文化与道家文化中的美学思想[J]. 美术教育研究, 2020(19): 54-55.

7. 宋丽艳. 论道家的自然理论及其实践智慧[J]. 黑龙江社会科学. 2020(4): 9-15.

8. 王进文. “起礼义,制法度”——从“礼”的结构与功能探讨荀子对法家思想的吸收与改造[J]. 孔子研究. 2020(4): 135-151.

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13. 马腾. 论清华简《治邦之道》的墨家思想[J]. 厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2019(5): 63-73.

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--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Ancient Writing and Painting Tool, Writing Brush - Zhao Xi 赵茜 202070080627 英语笔译==

====A. Writing Brush====

Writing brush is a writing and painting tool originated from China and is one of the four treasures of the study, writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)

Writing brush, a writing and painting tool originated from China, is one of the four treasures of the study which also includes writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones. Its history dates back to the Neolithic Age, which has been 5000 or 6000 years up to now. However, the physical object of writing brush was found in a Chu tomb in the Warring States periods. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 31)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the hometown of writing brush --- Hengshui, Hubei province and Huzhou, Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the 3rd of the 3rd lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)

In the Qin dynasty, writing brush had its own basic model. It is said that the General Meng Tian in the Qin dynasty who was a supervisor of the construction of the Great Wall invented the writing brush. Therefore, in the home of writing brush --- Hengshui of Hubei province and Huzhou of Zhejiang province, people commemorate and celebrate the invention of writing brush by making dumplings and drinking on the third day of the third lunar month. (Yan Hao 2012, 14)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.

In the Han dynasty, as the calligraphy grew vigorously, the making technique of writing brush has become more mature. The development of calligraphy promoted the shape of writing brush with excellent workmanship and started to pursue the decoration except for its function. The diameter of the pen-holder was from thick above to thinner below.It was no longer just a writing and painting tool, but an object worthy of appreciating and collecting. What's more, writing brush-making industry came into being and grew gradually, which made writing brush-making as a professional technology. Compared with the Qin dynasty, the writing brush in the Han dynasty was made more exquisite as people paid more attention to the comfort and feeling when they used it to write or paint.(Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the Wei and Jin dynasties, the process of making writing brush was fundamentally similar to that in the previous dynasties. It only had little difference in the length and diameter of pen-holder for the user's convenience.(Du Xiaofeng 2019, 35)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being in the history, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province play a role as the center of writing brush manufacturing all over the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly was rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36)

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the flourishing period when the writing brush-making industry developed rapidly in Xuanzhou. In the Tang dynasty, the first professional producing place of writing brush came into being, which made Xuanzhou of Anhui province become the center of writing brush manufacturing across the country. There were two masters of making writing brush. One was Mr.Chen and the other was Mr.Zhuge. The brushes produced in this place were called Xuan Chinese writing brushes and were much loved by writers, calligraphers, emperors and ministers. Materials for their head mainly were rabbit hair. For the selected superior material and exquisite workmanship, the writing brushes became tributes to the imperial household. (Du Xiaofeng 2019, 36) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

By the Song dynasty, writing brush manufacturing technology reached its peak. Xuanzhou was still the center of manufacturing and many new types of brushes were produced and the classification of brushes was more specialized. However, Xuan writing brush gradually lost its former level in workmanship because every place across the country had its own way to make writing brushes. The best choice of materials for the pen heads was not only the rabbit hair any more. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)

A batch of masters of making brushes appeared in the Huzhou of Zhejiang province in the Yuan and Ming dynasties, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke and Lu Wenbao. Writing brush made in this place, known as Hu writing brush, was characterized by pointed tip, even brush hair, round brush belly and flexible hair. Since the Qing dynasty, Huzhou has been the center of writing brush manufacturing. At the same time, several well-known writing brushes emerged in succession, among which writing brushes respectively made by Li Dinghe in Shanghai and made by Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi have won prizes in the international fairs. (Xu Qing 2013, 89)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

In the late Qing dynasty, with the incoming of western paintings, traditional Chinese realistic paintings began to fail and the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)

In the late Qing dynasty, with the introduction of western paintings into China, traditional Chinese realistic paintings went downhill and thus the writing brush was renovated. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou. At present, painting brushes produced in Shanghai, Suzhou and Beijing also enjoy high reputation. (Xu Qing 2013, 91)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

Writing brush can be classified according to the usage, shape, material of its head and so on. Brushes can be used to write or paint. Based on its shape, there are brushes with round hair and brushes with pointed hair. What’s more, materials for the head part of writing brushes includes goat hair, yellow weasel hair, black rabbit hair, pig hair, mouse mustache, and hair of buffalo’s tail. According to the hairs texture, Chinese brushes can be divided into the one with soft hair, mixed hair and hard hair. Considering the length of the tip, writing brush can be categorized as three types: small one, middle one and large one. (Wang Xiaaojuan 2013, 45)

Different types of brushes may possess different functions and usages. Writers prior to the Song dynasty used brushes with hard hair to write. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, as writers wrote larger Chinese characters, brushes used by them were changed from brushes with hard hair to brushes made of goat hair, namely goat-hair brushes, because the length of goat hair was apt to write big characters. Generally, people often use brushes with hard hair to write cursive script and semi-cursive script and always use hard-hair brushes to write regular script, official script and seal script. As for choosing the tip of a writing brush, we should choose appropriate length. If the tip of a brush is long, the tip will not be easy to master, but the brush can contain a lot of ink, suitable for writing cursive script. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

As a tool and carrier for inheriting and promoting Chinese culture and art, writing brush has forged a unique art of Chinese calligraphy and the distinctive artistic style of Chinese painting. Each dynasty in Chinese history has witnessed famous craftsmen appearing and fine works produced, which helped form a profound cultural accumulation. (Quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Liili

====B. Terms and Expressions====

笔锋 the tip of a wring brush

笔杆 pen-holder

宣笔 Xuan Chinese writing brush

羊毫笔 goat-hair brush

鼠须笔 mouse-mustache brush

====C. Questions====

1. What are the four treasures of the study?

2. How long is the history of writing brush?

3. When was the physical object of writing brush found?

4. How many centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history? What are they?

===Answers===

1. Writing brushes, ink sticks, paper and inkstones.

2. 5000 or 6000 years up to now.

3. In the Warring States periods.

4. There were three centers of writing brush manufacturing in the history, Hengshui, Xuanzhou and Huzhou.

===References===

*杜霄枫Du Xiaofeng. 苏易简《文房四谱》研究[Study on Su Yijian's Four Treasures of the Study].郑州大学[Zhengzhou University],2019.

*王小娟Wang Xiaojuan. 宋代文房四宝与文人[Four Treasures of the Study and Literati in the Song Dynasty].华中师范大学[Central China Normal University],2013.

*徐清Xu Qing.毛笔的发展及历代名工[The Development of Writing Brush and Famous Workers in Past Dynasties].中国书法[Chinese Calligraphy],2013.

*鄢豪Yan Hao. 器锐、法妙、事善[D].湖南师范大学,2012.

==Chinese Classical Fairy Tales -Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕 202070080628 MTI==

===Chinese Classical Fairy Tales===

===Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea===
Jingwei is a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from Yandi's daughter Nüwa. She is also a goddess in Chinese mythology.
The story is recorded in the Shanhaijing:Three thousand ninety li farther southeast, then northeast, stands Departing-Doves Mountain. On its heights are many mulberry trees. There is a bird dwelling here whose form resembles a crow with a patterned head, white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei and makes a sound like its name. She is the younger daughter of Yandi named Nüwa. Nüwa was swimming in the Eastern Sea when she was unable to return to shore and drowned. She then transformed into the bird Spirit-Guardian and regularly carries twigs and stones from the Western Mountains to fill up the Eastern Sea. The Zhang River emanates from here and flows eastward into the Yellow River.[1](Strassberg(2002),132.)
The story means dogged determination and perseverance in the face of seemingly impossible odds.Based on different research perspectives, people classify the myth into different types of myths. Obviously, the myth is a typical metamorphosis myth, and belongs to the myth of "life after death", that is, the soul is entrusted to a real substance. The woman drowned in the sea and became a bird to carry out the revenge business of reclamation.
The myth of “Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea” expresses the most essential and eternal thing about human beings: the fear of survival, and above all, the eternal and unique spirituality of human beings. These archetypal themes express the cultural consciousness of the ancestors arising from their most basic survival. Survival here is simply a cherishing of life. As a result of this initial instinct to preserve life, the sense of crisis gradually spread to a deeper and broader level in later generations.(Paragraph is too long)--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===The Great Flood of Gun-Yu===
The Great Flood of Gun-Yu, also known as the Gun-Yu myth, was a major flood event in ancient China that allegedly continued for at least two generations, which resulted in great population displacements among other disasters, such as storms and famine. People left their homes to live on the high hills and mounts, or nest on the trees.[2](Strassberg(2002)) According to mythological and historical sources, it is traditionally dated to the third millennium BCE, or about 2300-2200 BC, during the reign of Emperor Yao.
Yu tried a different approach to the project of flood control; which in the end having achieved success, earned Yu renown throughout Chinese history, in which the Gun-Yu Great Flood is commonly referred to as "Great Yu Controls the Waters". Yu's approach seems to have involved an approach more oriented toward drainage and less towards containment with dams and dikes. According to the more fancily embellished versions of the story it was also necessary for him to subdue various supernatural beings as well as recruit the assistance of others, for instance a channel-digging dragon and a giant mud-hauling tortoise (or turtle).[3]
In the history of Chinese civilization, the story "the Great Flood of Gun-Yu" played an important role in healing water. In the process of curing water, Yu relied on the concepts of hard work, making the best use of the situation, scientific treatment of water and putting people first, and overcame many difficulties to achieve success. This led to the formation of the spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation. The spirit of the Great Yu is the source and symbol of the Chinese national spirit.

===The Legendary of Nian===

According to Chinese mythology, a Nian is a beast that lives under the sea or in the mountains. The character nian more usually means "year" or "new year". The earliest written sources that refer to the nian as a creature date to early 20th century. As a result, it is unclear whether the Nian creature is an authentic part of traditional folk mythology or a part of a local oral tradition which was recorded in the early 20th century. Nian is one of the key characters in the Chinese New Year with scholars citing it as the reason behind several practices during the celebration such as wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.[4](Laban (2016-02-08)). Various aspects of cultural practices relating to Chinese New Year are now included as part of the nian legend. Once every year at the beginning of Chinese New Year, the nian comes out of its hiding place to feed, mostly on men and animals. During winter, since food is sparse, he would go to the village. He would eat the crops and sometimes the villagers, mostly children. There are several accounts as to how it looked, such as the way some sources cited that it resembles a flat-face lion with a dog's body and prominent incisor.[5](Flake, Ben (2014-01-31)). Other authors described it as larger than an elephant with two long horns and many sharp teeth.[6](Yuan, Haiwang (2006)). The weaknesses of the nian are purported to be a sensitivity to loud noises, fire, and a fear of the color red.
The reason why people consider the year as a monster is because the earth and sky bring food and clothing, as well as disasters. Therefore, it is important to start the year with a respect for nature and to pray for blessings through rituals.(paragraph is too long)

===Terms and Expressions===

Jingwei Tries to Fill the Sea 精卫填海

Yandi 炎帝

Shanhaijing 山海经

Departing-Doves Mountain 发鸠山

Nüwa 女娃

Eastern Sea 东海

the bird Spirit-Guardian 精卫鸟

Zhang River 漳水

The Great Flood of Gun-Yu 鲧禹治水

Emperor Yao 尧帝

Nian 年

new year 新年

===Questions===
1.Who is Nüwa?

She is the younger daughter of Yandi,then transformed into a bird called Jingwei.

2.What can we learn from the Great Flood of Gun-Yu?

The spirit of Da Yu's water management, which is based on the concepts of selflessness, national supremacy, people as the foundation of the nation, and scientific innovation.

3.What are the customs of Chinese New Year?

Wearing red clothing and creating noise from drums and fireworks.
===References===

[1]Translation in Strassberg(2002),132.

[2]Strassberg,Richard,ed.(2002),''A Chinese bestiary:strange creatures from the guideways through mountains and seas,'' University of California Press.

[3]百度百科

[4]Laban, Barbara (2016-02-08). ''Top 10 Chinese myths''. the Guardian.

[5]Flake, Ben (2014-01-31). ''It Lurks''. The Paris Review.

[6]Yuan, Haiwang (2006). ''The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese''. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. 168.

--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:04, 3 December 2020 (UTC)

==Face Changing in Sichuan Opera - Zhou Yiwen 周艺文 202070080629 英语笔译==

===Face Changing in Sichuan Opera===

1.Sichuan Opera and its characteristics

Sichuan Opera originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). With immigrants flooding into Sichuan, different dramas were brought in to blend with the local dialect, customs, folk music and dances. Gradually, brisk humorous Sichuan Opera, reflecting Sichuan culture, came into being. Sichuan Opera is well-known in China, and it is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies. Performers wear brightly colored costumes and move to quick, dramatic music and they are always full of wit, humor, lively dialogues, and pronounced local flavors. They also wear vividly colored masks that they may change within a fraction of a second. The magic stunts such as quick face changes without makeup and the acrobatics such as jumping through burning hoops and hiding swords entertain and amuse audiences. (https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml)

2.The origin and development of face changing

Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795). It is said that ancient people painted their faces to drive away wild animals. Sichuan Opera absorbs this ancient skill and perfects it into an art. Face-changing is achieved by quickly tearing off, rubbing, or blowing away a mask to reveal another. It is the highlight of Sichuan Opera. It is an important aspect of Sichuan Opera, and the precise techniques that are used to change masks in modern Sichuan Opera is a closely guarded secret. The secrets have been passed down within theatre families from generation to generation. It was listed as intangible cultural heritage in 2005. (百度百科: 川剧变脸--历史起源 Baidu Baike：The origin of face changing)

Face-changing was first used in a story about a hero who stole from the rich to help the poor. When he was caught by feudal officials, he changed his face to puzzle them and escaped as a result. By the 1920s, opera masters began using layers of masks made of oiled paper or dried pig bladder. Skilled performers could peel off one mask after another in less than a second. In contemporary opera, performers wave their arms and twist their heads, and their painted masks are changed again and again, much to the astonishment and amusement of the audience. Modern-day masters use full-face painted silk masks, which can be worn in layers of as many as twenty-four, and be pulled off one by one. (https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm)

It is amazing to watch actors change their masks with a magical sweep of a hand or the turning of the head. It is difficult to see the masks being changed. Sichuan Opera master Peng Denghuai changed 14 masks in 25 seconds, and reverted to four masks after revealing his true face. This was his latest Guinness World record, breaking his previous one. Hong Kong super star Andy Lau was said to respect Mr. Peng as teacher and mentor in this stunt. One Sichuan Opera master also used Qigong movements as he changed face color from red to white, then from white to black. (Xiao, 2013:54-55)

3.The symbolic meaning and typical characters in different colors of Lianpu

The most direct impression of Sichuan Opera facial makeup is its colorful colors, which are just like the color plates in paintings. Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green. The colors are bright and pure, exaggerated and gorgeous. Its color is rich and changeful, each kind of color has its connotation. In addition to the differences in color, people's perception of color in daily life is more related to the aesthetic meaning and cultural connotation. For example, yellow represents sunshine, green represents health, black represents darkness, etc. On the one hand, the colors on facial masks exaggerate and amplify the features of the characters; on the other hand, they also express the hearts of the characters through the symbolic meanings. The colors become the basis for the audience to evaluate the characters, either praising or criticizing. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness, and the most famous one is Guan Yu in Romance of The Three Kingdoms. He is loyal to Liu Bei all his life and does not seek vanity. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters, such as Cao Cao, Qin Hui, Yan Song, Sima Yi. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness, the most typical is Bao Zheng’s facial makeup, in addition to Li Kui, Zhang Fei, Xiang Yu and so on. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence, such as Dian Wei and Pang Juan. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness, such as The “green tiger” Xu Shiying. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce, such as Dou Erdun, Cheng Yaojin, Gongsun Sheng, etc. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters, representing Buddhas, gods, spirits, ghosts, etc. For example, Sun Wukong (Monkey King) has a facial makeup with burning eyes and some gold on his eyelids, thus showing the cleverness of the Monkey King. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

As the visual focus for the audience to appreciate Sichuan opera, the varied colors of facial makeup bring different levels of inner feelings to the audience. Such rich and varied colors successfully express the character of the opera characters and the historical judgment of their emotions in a clear and appropriate way. It can be said that color, as a visual language, occupies a very important position in sichuan opera facial makeup art. (Wang, 2017 132-133)

4.Crafting materials for facial makeup

As for the materials of Sichuan Opera face-changing, they were mostly based on the hard surface shell made of rough paper paste at the beginning. After continuous improvement, they evolved into drawing on the thin paper surface. Folding fans or cloaks were often used to cover the face-changing process. At the moment of turning a head or stroke sleeve quickly pull off layers of facial makeup. After the founding of new China, with extensive attention paid to the art of Sichuan Opera, face-changing stunts have also made considerable progress, and the process materials for making facial masks have been gradually replaced by lighter and more durable silk fabrics from the original paper. For performers, the use of the silk fabric not only speeds up the production time of facial masks, but also increases the time for instant facial makeup. Different from the complexity of the traditional facial makeup drawing process, this facial makeup making process does not need to consider the facial structure, and the drawing pattern is more free and smooth. However, it should be noted that because of the rapid change of face mask in the performance process, the instant face change, the stage effect is strong, so this kind of face mask is very particular about simple writing, bright colors, rough and powerful. (Luo, 2019, 13:29-30)

5.Three main types of Lianpu

There are three types of face changes, Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine. In the Wiping Mask routine the actor applies cosmetic paint in a certain position on his face. If the whole face is to be changed, the cosmetic paint is applied to the forehead or eyebrows; for changes on the lower half of the face, paint is applied to his cheeks or nose; or to other specific parts. The Blowing Mask routine works with powder cosmetics, such as gold, silver, and ink powders. Sometimes a tiny box is placed on the stage; the actor draws near and blows at the box. The powder will puff up and stick to the face. Sometimes the powder is put in a cup. The secret to success in this act is to close the eyes and mouth and to hold the breath. The Pulling Mask routine is the most complicated. Masks are painted on pieces of damask, well cut, hung with a silk thread, and the lightly pasted to the face one by one. The silk thread is fastened in an inconspicuous part of the costume. With a flick of his cloak the performer magically whisks away the masks one by one as the drama develops.(百度百科: 川剧变脸--表现手法Baidu Baike: Face changing -- Expression methods)

===Terms and Expressions===

Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) n.川剧

Face changing n.变脸

Lian pu 脸谱

Guan Yu 关羽

Romance of The Three Kindoms 《三国演义》

Liu Bei 刘备

Cao Cao 曹操

Qin Hui 秦桧

Yan Song 严嵩

Sima Yi 司马懿

Bao Zhenhg 包拯

Li Kui 李逵

Zhang Fei 张飞

Dian Wei 典韦

Pang Juan 庞涓

Xu Shiying 徐世英

Dou Erdun 窦尔敦

Cheng Yaojin 程咬金

Gongsun Sheng 公孙胜

Sun Wukong, 孙悟空

Monkey King 孙悟空，美猴王

Peng Denghuai 彭登怀

Andy Lau 刘德华

Wiping Mask 抹脸

Blowing Mask 吹脸

Pulling Mask 扯脸

===Questions===
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

1.How long is the history of Sichuan Opera?

2.What are the characteristics of Sichuan Opera?

3.How long is the history of face changing?

4.What are the typical colors of lianpu and what are their symbolic meanings?

5.What are the three types of face changes?

===Answers===

1.Sichuan Opera (Chuan Ju) originated at the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).

2.Sichuan Opera is characterized by solo singing, skillful acting, rich percussion and incredibly funny comedies.

3.Face changing began 300 years ago, during the reign of the Qing Dynasty Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795).

4.Red, black, blue, white, yellow and green are the main colors, supplemented by turmeric, pink and stone green.

The red mask represents loyalty and righteousness. White color is used in those treacherous and insidious characters. Black is a symbol of integrity and frankness. Yellow symbolizes bravery and violence. Green symbolizes recklessness and impulsiveness. Blue and green are more neutral, symbolizing outlaw hero, strong and fierce. Gold and silver do not often appear, generally only used by mythological characters.

5.Wiping Mask routine, Blowing Mask routine and Pulling Mask routine.

===References===

Luo Yue 罗玥. (2019). 浅谈川剧随心变的变脸脸谱艺术 [On the Art of Changing Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''戏剧之家'' Home Drama13:29-30.

Wang Huaqing 王华清. (2017). 刍议川剧脸谱艺术特征 [Analysis of the Artistic Characteristics of Facial Makeup in Sichuan Opera]. ''设计'' Design

Xiao Yuanjin 萧源锦. (2013). 神奇莫测的川剧变脸 [Magical Face Changes of Sichuan Opera]. ''文史杂志'' Journal of Literature and History 2: 54-55.

百度百科Baidu Baike

https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/573460.shtml

https://www.chinahighlights.com/chengdu/attraction/magical-face-change.htm --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 14:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲 Student No.202070080630==

===The Nine-Grade Official Selection System in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties===

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System.

In the Wei, Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 220-AD 589), China was a profoundly divided country. Different from the unified Han Dynasty, in this period the northern and southern part of China confronted each other, with numerous political regimes existing at the same time. In this period, the official selection system was mainly the Nine-Rank Official Selection System. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.

The Nine-Rank Official Selection System originated from Cao Cao's thought of "meritocracy" in the late Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 184-AD 220), and was not formally carried out by Cao Pi, king of Wei, until AD 220. When Cao Pi established this system of selecting officials, he hoped that "it is based on the merits of talents, not on the superiority of aristocratic families". And the establishment of this system also used the Recommendatory System (a method of civil recruitment) in Han Dynasty for reference.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

The contents of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System are as follows:

1. Local dignitaries with integrity and talents would be appointed by the imperial court as Rectifiers. Rectifiers in each Region would be classified as Senior Rectifiers, in each Commandery as Junior Rectifiers.

2. Rectifiers were in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates' talents, morality and hereditary social status. The Rectifier were only in charge of classification. They didn't have the power of appointment.

3. The nine ranks were superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior. (see picture)
[[File:The Nine-Grade Official Selection System.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The Nine-Grade Official Selection System, image from Baike. Click [https://baike.baidu.com/pic/%E4%B9%9D%E5%93%81%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E5%88%B6/1711003/1/77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f?fr=lemma&ct=single#aid=1&pic=77c6a7efce1b9d16f5c6d3cef9deb48f8c54641f.jpg] for original source.]]

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.

4. Firstly, the Junior Rectifier would consider to a large extent what status the candidate’s ancestors had possessed and how many generations had taken office. Secondly, the Junior Rectifier proceeded to examine the merits of the candidate. Thirdly, the Junior Rectifier would hand in their classification to the Senior Rectifier who would check the validity of the classification and submit it to the Minister of Personnel. Finally, the Minister of Personnel would select the officials and appointed them to office.

5. The level of the office was parallel to the rank of each candidate.

6. Every three years, the Rectifier would submit their recommendations to the Minister of Personnel. In the recommendations, the Rectifier would state their opinion as to whether officials who had already been conferred offices should be promoted or not.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

In the initial stage of the implementation, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System played a positive role. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.

However, with the passage of time, the negative factors in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System began to play an overwhelming role. Due to the lack of supervision mechanism, the Nine-Rank Official Selection System gradually became a tool for the elite class to control the selection of talents and to further control the whole bureaucratic system. The Twenty-Four Histories described the bureaucratic stratum of that times as “Nobody ranked as a superior comes from a humble family; nobody classified as an inferior comes from a noble family.” Besides, since morality was given priority in the Nine-Rank Official Selection System, talents with moral flaws would lose the opportunity of being recruited forever.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

===Terms and Expressions===

Nine-Rank Official Selection System 九品中正制

Recommendatory System 察举制

Rectifier 中正官

Senior Rectifier 大中正官

Junior Rectifier 小中正官

Region 州

Commandery 郡

superior-superior 上上

superior-intermediary 上中

superior-inferior 上下

intermediary-superior 中上

intermediary-intermediary 中中

intermediary-inferior 中下

inferior-superior 下上

inferior-intermediary 下中

and inferior-inferior 下下

Minister of Personnel 吏部尚书

Twenty-Four Histories 《二十四史》

===Questions===

1. Who established the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

2. What does a Rectifier do?

3. What are the nine ranks?

4. What's the positive influence of the Nine-Rank Official Selection System?

===Answers===

1. Cao Pi, king of Wei.

2. A Rectifier is in charge of classifying all males in their jurisdiction into nine ranks based on the candidates’ talents, morality and hereditary social status.

3. The nine ranks are superior-superior, superior-intermediary, superior-inferior, intermediary-superior, intermediary-intermediary, intermediary-inferior, inferior-superior, inferior-intermediary, and inferior-inferior.

4. It was conducive to the selection of talents and stability of society. In addition, taking morality as a standard of recruitment changed the situation that rich and powerful families dominated the selection of talents since the late Eastern Han Dynasty, which strengthened the central government’s control over civil recruitment.

===References===

1. Sun Xiaoyu, ''A Chinese History Reader'', Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ld., 2010.

2. Charles O Hucker, ''A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China'', Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1985.

3. Deng Zhongping 邓中平. (2010). 浅析中国古代选官制度及启示 [Analysis of ancient Chinese system for selecting officers and enlightenment].西南政法大学 Southwest University of Political Science and Law.

==Lattice on Ancient Chinese Windows 祝美梅 Student No.202070080632 Major: MTI ==

===Introduction===

From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played an significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)

From then till now, window at home and abroad has always played a significant role in the construction of buildings, both in its practical function and decorative values. The design of this architectural part affects the appearance, style, human touch, solemnity, vitality, and the enchantment of the building. The cultural implication of windows has developed over the years. Our forefathers poured much of their emotions on this “hole” on the wall, regarding it as the most indispensable component in their life. This article will introduce several kinds of lattices in detail. (Liang Sicheng 1994, 78)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

Lattice (gexin格心), this is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)

Lattice (gexin格心) is also called “diamond lattice” (ling hua, 菱花). Diamond-shaped patterns were predominantly applied in external decoration in earlier periods. Lattice is also called geyan (格眼). (Ma Weidu, 2016, 47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 1.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice]] [[File: Windows 1-1.jpg|200px|The three-crossing-nodes lattice-2]]

The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. For the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)

The three-crossing-nodes lattice symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth. In the imperial palaces, this pattern means: in front of the emperor is a spectacular landscape characterized by prosperity, peacefulness, vitality and brightness. While for the divine temples, it means that God is in charge of the balance of the universe. When heaven and earth is in congruence with each other, lives on earth flourish and humans survive. This lattice also represents the prayer of our forefathers to plead god’s protection and the bumper harvest of both crops and animals. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 128-130)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice===

[[File: Windows 2.jpg|300px|The two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice]] [[File: Windows 3.jpg|300px|The three-crossing-six-nodes ]]

In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it looking a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)

In the Forbidden City, the lattice of partition windows in main palaces are in diamond-shape. It was formed by two or three crossing rods with attached petals at the knot, making it look like a blooming flower. The lattice’s name made by two crossing rods is “the two-crossing-four-nodes lattice”, while by three is “the three-crossing-six-nodes lattice”. (Xiao Mo 1999, 35)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===A-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern===

[[File: Windows 4-1.jpg|200px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 4.jpg|300px|A-quiver-with-three-arrows lattice]]

This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the above, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）

This lattice is formed by three groups horizontal rods respectively at the top, medium and bottom of a window intertwining with several vertical rods. These slender and long rods seems like arrows, hence the name. Chinese Taoists once said “ The Tao gives birth to One. One gives birth to Two. Two give birth to Three. Three gives birth to all things.” This type of lattice signifies numerous long arrows hanging on the window, with three implications: the property to dispel intruders from evils; a manifestation that inexhaustible weapons are in store with power endowed by heaven and a guarantee the acquisition of wealth as arrows are useful tools in hunting. (Laozi, 2016：105）--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Swastika lattice===

[[File: Windows 5.jpg|200px|middle|Swastika lattice]]

Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like the spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

Swastika lattice, one of the ancient marks in China and India, gives people a spinning feeling. It looks like a spiral form caused by the flowing air or the vortex by running water in a river. The ancients believe that spiral movement is the engine of life. The shape卐 has no clear head nor tail, similar to Tai Chi diagram in traditional Chinese culture. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

This lattice represents the restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.

This lattice represents restless life and the infinite circulating of the universe. The character’s four directions stretch outside, manifesting auspiciousness and longevity. “swastika brocade” is also known as “ flowing swastika”.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Fret lattice===

[[File: Windows 6-1.jpg|300px|Fret lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 6.jpg|300px|Fret lattice]]

Fret lattice means a safe return, and long happiness and longevity. It was derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)

Fret lattice means a safe return, long happiness and longevity. It derived from the cloud and thunder pattern inscribed on pottery and bronze wares. The lattice is in square, or rounded spiral shape constructed by horizontal and vertical short lines, looking like the Chinese character “回”. It gives people an illumination urging they to move forward incessantly in their undertakings till success no matter what setbacks and failures we might meet, and the long lasting blessing and longevity. (Yu Shiping, 2019, (01):1-2)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The cracked ice lattice===

[[File: Windows 7-1.jpg|250px|The cracked ice lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 7.jpg|300px|The cracked ice lattice]]

The cracked ice pattern symbolize that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)

The cracked ice pattern symbolizes that ice starts melting, the end of the chilly winter and the return of the earth to spring, as all things are reviving. It’s connotation is that all the unpleasant and unpleasant things have passed away, and the good and pleasant wishes will be realized immediately. (Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan, 2011, (12): 100-101)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The H-shaped Lattice===

[[File: Windows 8-1.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 8.jpg|200px|The H-shaped Lattice]]

The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbols things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)

The H-shaped bar pattern lattice not only looks like hieroglyphics, but also symbolizes things that are exquisite, beautiful and standard. In addition, the ancients thought that the horizontal and vertical lines in the character of “工” indicating people do things in accordance with the orthodox traditional rules and practices and his integrity. (Zhang Jiji, 1991, 115)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===The well-shaped lattice===

[[File: Windows 9-1.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice-1]] [[File: Windows 9.jpg|300px|The Well-shaped lattice]]

The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, as well as resemble the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299)

The well-shaped lattice is not only the hieroglyph of Chinese character “井”, but also resembles the railings surrounded the place where the ancients dug a hole to fetch water.
Basically, China’s city planning is also expanded following well-shaped pattern. The reason why people choose this pattern is that they want to correspond with the well constellation, a symbol of auspiciousness and wish to keep away from fire hazard. （Zhao Jiawei, 2011, (15): 298-299) --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for the Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)

"In the West, a window is just a window, which lets light and fresh air come in, but for Chinese, it is a picture frame, through which the outside garden can be seen." Bei Lv Ming once said. By means of Lattice as a decoration, the picturesque window is not only a feast to eyes, but also enriches the layers of architectures, reflecting people's expectations for a better life. (Yu Shiping, 2019,(01): 94-95)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Vocabulary List===

lattice 格心

diamond lattice 菱花

the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice 三交六椀菱花

the two-crossing-four-nodes Lattice 双交四椀菱花

a-quiver-with-three-arrows-pattern 一码三箭样式菱花

swastika pattern 万字纹样式棂花

fret Lattice 回纹样式棂花

the cracked ice lattice 冰裂纹样式棂花

the well-shaped lattice 井字样式棂花

===Questions===

1. What's the practical function of lattice on ancient Chinese windows?

2. What kind of lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples?

3. What's the cultural implications of the three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice?

===Answers===

1. Lattice makes the window more lighter in weight.

2. The three-crossing-six-nodes Lattice was often used on windows of the imperial palace and divine temples.

3. The three-crossing-nodes lattice, symbolizes the orthodox state power, as well as heaven and earth.

===Reference===

*Huang Yixi 黄亦锡. (2008) 酒、酒器与传统文化[Wine, Wineset and Traditional Culture: the Study of Wine Culture of Ancient China]. 厦门大学Xiamen University.

*Liang Si 梁思成.(1994) 中国建筑史[History of Chinese Architecture].江苏美术出版社 Jiangsu Fine Arts Publishing House.

*Xiao Mo 萧默.(1999)中国建筑艺术史[The Art History of Chinese Architecture].文物出版社 Cultural Relics Publishing House.

*Zhang Jiji 张家骥.(1991) 中国造园论[On Chinese Gardening].山西人民出版社 Shanxi People's Publishing House.

*Ma Weidu 马未都.(2016) 中国古代门窗[Chinese Ancient Doors and Windows].中国建筑工业出版社 China Building Industry Press

*Zhao Jiawei 赵佳薇(2011). 重庆磁器口传统木雕窗窗棂浅析Analysis on window Lattice of Chongqing Ciqikou Traditional Wood Carving Window. 大众文艺 The Mass Literature and Arts

* Yu Shiping 郁世萍（2019). 格心棂花的装饰美——常家庄园传统窗棂艺术研究 [Beauty of Lattice -- Study on Traditional Window Lattice Art of Chang's Manor]. 美术大观 Art Review.

* Lv Dandan, Song Kuiyan吕丹丹，宋魁彦 (2011). 传统民居隔扇格心纹样解析 [An Analysis of the lattices used on Residential Partitions]. 发展 Development.

==Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)-Zhu Xu 朱旭 202070080631 MTI==

===Yuelu Academy(One of the Four Most Prestigious Academies)===

As one of the four most prestigious academies (Songyang Academy,Yingtianfu Academy,Yuelu Academy, White Deer Grotto Academy)over the last 1000 years in China, Yuelu Academy has been a famous institution of higher learning as well as a centre of academic activities and cultures since it was formally set up in the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976AD). (Wekipedia)

The Academy has witnessed a history of more than one thousand years without a break, so it is called a "one-thousand-year-old academy". The historical transformation from Yuelu Academy to Hunan University is an epitome of the development of China's higher education, which mirrors the vicissitudes of China's education system. Shortly after its establishment, Yuelu Academy was known throughout the whole of China for its style of school management and its role in the dissemination of academic learning. When Emperor Zhenzong of the Northern Song Dynasty summoned the dean, Zhou Shi, to an interview, and conferred upon the Academy his Majesty's inscription.(Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Yuelu Academy vaulted into great fame, and enjoyed the reputation "xiao xiang zhu si", meaning it was a place in Hunan where great scholars assembled. It is right here that the renowned "Huxiang School of Learning" in the history of the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle) began to gain currency when Zhang Shi lectured in the Academy in the Sorthern Song Dynasty. And when Zhu Xi came here twice to give lectures, so popular were the lectures that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat, and the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained by their horses. (Chen Yuxiang, 2020, 22)

Later on, the Academy saw other learning and ideas promulgated and exchanged such as the Yangming School in the midst of the Ming Dynasty, the Donglin School in the last years of the Ming dynasty, the Han School of the Qian Long and the Jia Qing Reigns (1736-1821) and the New Learning of the last years of the Qing Dynasty. The academic learning and education system of Yuelu Academy have had a far-reaching impact on the formation and development of Hunan's cultural tradition.(Xu Yanwen, 2020, 18)

Yuelu Academy mainly comprises Main Gate, Lecture Hall, Lushan Temple Tablet, Yushu Library, Wenchang Pavilion, Six Gentleman Hall, Ten-sacrificial-vessels Hall, Grand Sunlight Platform, the Banxue Building, the Hexi Platform, etc.The four characters "Yue Lu Shu Yuan" (Yuelu Academy in Chinese) on the horizontal board of the Main Gate were inscriptions of Zhenzong, an Emperor of the Song Dynasty (960AD-1279AD). From then on, Yuelu Academy became well-known all around the country and students came to study in an endless stream. On the door posts of the gate are couplets which read Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng (the Kingdom of Chu, the unique home of talents; the Academy of Yuelu, the very cradle of all). This couplet originates from Chinese classics and is considered appropriate, given the fact that talents have been delivered continuously by the Academy since its establishment.(Kong Sumei, Bai Xu, 2011, 179)[[File:Gate.jpg|300px|thumb|right|the gate of Yuelu Academy]]

Its architecture part had been reconstructed in 1980’s, but the garden landscape lacked unified design. Nowadays, the garden landscape of academy is losing its poetic imagery gradually. Under the principle of respecting history and spreading garden tradition, the conception of improving landscape axis for the academy and restoring Eight Scenes of Yuelu Academy is proposed for the overall restoration of the academy landscape. It is meaningful for setting a good example for the Chinese classical academy’s garden and replenishing the traditional garden art.The Lecture Hall, also called a "Hall of Loyalty, Filial Piety, Integrity and Chastity", is a core building of the Academy. Located at the heart of the Academy, the Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony. In the 6th year of Qiandao Reign (1168 AD), the Southern Song Dynasty, the famous idealists Zhang Shi and Zhu Xi made a joint lecture here, which was the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.(Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong, 2012, 409)[[File:plan for Yuelu Academy.jpg|300px|thumb|right|plan for Yuelu Academy]]

There are also many valuable cultural relics made of steles in the Lecture Hall. On the inner walls of the hall are engraved four big Chinese Characters- Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie (loyalty, piety, honesty and integrity) which were written by the great scholar Zhu Xi. There are others famous saying inscribed as well, such as "Uniform and stand as a mark of respect" written and set by Ouyang Zhenghuan, a master of the Qing Dynasty, and the stele "School Regulations" written by master Wang Wenqing of the Qing Dynasty are all important historical materials for the study of the education in China's Confucian academies. They still hold their own enlightening meaning to us nowadays. Having a history of more than one thousand years, there have been countless talented students learning here.(Ruan Hongsong, 2020, 62)

Especially in the late 19th century and 20th century, it witnessed a great number of patriotic thinkers, politicians, militarists, industrialists and diplomats.Today, Yuelu Academy, which has undergone restorations, has been listed as a key historical site under the state protection. It still shoulders the responsibility of conducting academic researches and training professionals.(Wang Yi, 2019, 106)--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===
Xu Yanwen 徐艳文. (2020).古朴典雅的岳麓书院建筑群[The ancient and elegant Yuelu Academy Complex].''中外建筑'' Chinese&Overseas Architecture (06):17-20.

Chen Yuxiang 陈宇翔. (2020).岳麓书院:湖湘文化传承的圣地[Yuelu Academy: The Holy Land of Huxiang culture].''新湘评论'' Xinxiang Comment (03):22-23.

Kong Sumei, Bai Xu 孔素美,白旭. (2011)中国古代书院建筑形制浅析——以中国古代四大书院为例[On the architectural form of ancient Chinese academies —— Taking the four great academies in ancient China as an example].''华中建筑'' Huazhong Architecture 29(07):177-180.

Luo Muhe 罗慕赫. (2020).岳麓文脉传千年[The Millennium Inheritance of Yuelu culture]. ''中国纪检监察报'' China Discipline Inspection and Supervision Newspaper 09-25(006).

Ruan Hongsong 阮红松. (2020).岳麓书院与山长[Yuelu Academy and Shanzhang（principal）].''炎黄纵横'' Yan Huang Zong Heng (03):62-63.

Wang Yi 王艺. (2019).沅生芷草，澧育兰花——岳麓书院[Yuan Sheng Zhi Cao, Li Yu Lan Hua —— Yuelu Academy].''广西城镇建设'' Cites and Towns Construction in Guangxi (12):104-110.

Li Bo He, Xing Yao Xiong. (2012).''The Landscape Restoration Conception of Yuelu Academy''. Scenic Zone 1976:405-411.

Daniel McMahon. (2005).''The Yuelu Academy and Hunan's Nineteenth-Century Turn Toward Statecraft''. Late Imperial China 26(1).

Wekipedia: Yuelu Academy

===Terms and Expressions===
Kai Bao Reign 开宝年间

Emperor Zhenzong 宋真宗

xiao xiang zhu si 潇湘洙泗

Huxiang School of Learning 湖湘学派

Donglin School 东林党

Zhu Xi 朱熹

Zhou Shi 周式

Zhang Shi 张栻

Qiandao Reign 乾道年间

Wei Chu You Cai, Yu Si Wei Sheng 惟楚有才，于斯为盛

Zhong, Xiao, Lian, Jie 忠、孝、廉、洁

Lushan Temple Tablet 麓山寺碑亭

Yushu Library 御书楼

Wenchang Pavilion 文昌阁

Six Gentleman Hall 六君子堂

Grand Sunlight Platform 明伦堂

the Banxue Building 半学斋

the Hexi Platform 赫曦台

===Questions===
1.When did Yuelu Academy has been formally set up?

2.Why the water in the Yinma Pond (the Horse-Watering Pond) was drained?

3.What is the core building of Yuelu Academy?

4.What is the function of the Lecture Hall?

5.How many schools, learning and ideas do Yuelu Academy relate to?

6.What had happended in Yuelu Academy in the 6th year of Qiandao Reign?

===Answers===
1.In the ninth year of the Kai Bao Reign of the Northern Song Dynasty (976).

2.Because the lectures in Yuelu Academy were so popular that there were too many visitors for the Academy to seat.

3.The Lecture Hall.

4.The Lecture Hall is the most important place for teaching and momentous ceremony.

5.Five.They are the li philosophy (the philosophy of principle), the Yangming School, the Donglin School, the Han School and the New Learning.

6.It held the first joint lecture in the Confucian academies of China.

--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Currency, Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty) - Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨, 202070080633, majored in English Translation==

===Jiaozi(A Paper Currency in Northern Song Dynasty)===

[[File:jiaozi.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Jiaozi(A paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty), image from Baike. Click [https://ss1.bdstatic.com/70cFvXSh_Q1YnxGkpoWK1HF6hhy/it/u=3838516284,3835551581&fm=26&gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]

Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55).
Jiaozi was a form of banknote which appeared around the 10th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. It is recognized as the first paper currency in history by numismatists (Li Jiashou 1993, 55). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.
The origin of jiaozi is still uncertain and has aroused a lot of discussion in which there are five main ideas. The first point of view was that jiaozi originated from Fei-qian (currency exchange notes in Tang Dynasty), which was recorded in The History of Song Dynasty (Tuo Tuo 1985, 181). Secondly, some people believed that jiaozi developed from contractual bonds. Peng Xinwei, a well-known Chinese currency historians and numismatics, exemplified that during the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom (907-930), the iron coins in circulation were too big and heavy, making people trade with contractual bonds which had the same function as paper currency (Peng Xinwei 1965, 259). Besides, an institution in Tang Dynasty called “Gui Fang” was regarded by some people as the origin of jiaozi. This kind of institutions specialized in the storage and lending of money and commodities. In addition, there was another opinion that it was the lack of coins in circulation caused by people stopping minting iron coins during Li Shun’s uprising that promoted the origin of jiaozi (Dai Zhiqiang 2006, 43). The last thought about jiaozi’s origin was that the coins were of great weight, casting a great burden on merchants in carrying them, so they invented jiaozi.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835).
The appearance of paper currency in Northern Song Dynasty was not accidental, but was an inevitable product of socio-political and economic development. With the rapid development of commodity economy in Song Dynasty, there was a need for more currency in circulation, but the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation. The iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use. Chengdu was an important economic center, and the roads to the outside world were extremely rugged, so there was an objective need for a light currency, which is the main reason why paper currency first appeared in Sichuan. Furthermore, although the Northern Song Dynasty was a country of highly centralized feudal dictatorship, the national currency was not uniform and there were several currency zones, each with its own rules, which were not used by the other. In addition, the Song government was frequently attacked by the Liao, Xia and Jin dynasties, and had to issue paper currency to cover its financial deficit (Mu Zi 2006, 79). All these reasons led to the creation of the paper currency, "jiaozi".
Jiaozi was actually a certificate of deposit at first. During the Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" appeared in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, which offered a cash-custody services for merchants who had difficulty carrying large sums of money. The depositors would deliver their deposit to the jiaozi bank, and the bank would fill in the amount of the deposit on a paper roll made of broussonetia papyrifera (paper mulberry) and return it to the depositor, for which the depositor had to pay the bank the storage fee. This kind of mulberry paper roll, on which the amount of deposit was filled temporarily, was called jiaozi (Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang, 1995, 835). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22).
Initially, jiaozi was issued freely by merchants. In the early years of Northern Song Dynasty, "jiaozi banks" emerged in Chengdu, Sichuan province, for merchants carrying large sums of money who operated a cash deposit business. At this time, jiaozi was only a form of deposit and withdrawal receipt, not currency. With the development of the commodity economy, the use of jiaozi became more and more widespread, and many merchants joined together to set up jiaozi banks specializing in issuing and exchanging jiaozi, and they also opened branch banks in various places. Due to the creditworthiness of the jiaozi bank owners, people could withdraw their money as they came. And the printed designs of jiaozi were too exquisite to be forged, the bank owners began to print jiaozi with a uniform denomination and format, which was issued to the market as a new means of circulation. This kind of jiaozi was already the symbol for minted coins, and really became paper currency. But it had not yet been recognized by the government, and was still issued by private individuals as "private jiaozi" (Jia Daquan 1994, 22). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).
Not all jiaozi banks were law-abiding and trustworthy. During the first year of Renzong reign (1023), Xue Tian, the governor of Yizhou, reorganized the jiaozi banks, weeding out the outlaws and exclusively let sixteen wealthy merchants run the banks (Jia Daquan 1994, 61). It was only then that the issuance of jiaozi was recognized by the government. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023), the government set up the Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department, with one or two officials as supervisors to preside over the issuance of jiaozi, and set up a paper-copying academy to eliminate currency forgery, strictly enforcing the printing process. In order to ensure the proper circulation of jiaozi, the government also enacted laws to criminalize the counterfeiting of jiaozi (Hong Pimo 1991, 67). This was the earliest paper currency officially issued by the government in China - the "official jiaozi" (Li You 1935, 15).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).
The Northern Song government introduced a relatively comprehensive set of regulatory laws and policies in order to ensure the success of issuing jiaozi. In the beginning period of issuing jiaozi, the feudal government was cautious about the issuance of banknotes, and the introduction of laws and policies on the regulation of banknotes showed that the government was fully aware of the credit-dependent nature of banknotes and their weakness in being easy to counterfeit and issue indiscriminately. However, the feudal government often failed to effectively control the issuance of banknotes. When the government needed to spend a large amount of money, it often failed to restrain itself and abused its public credibility by using its power to issue banknotes indefinitely, which eventually caused inflation, thus making the banknotes lose their credibility and turning them into waste paper, as evidenced by the fate of jiaozi in Northern Song Dynasty. The government's abuse of credibility led to jiaozi becoming a tool for its enrichment. Without credibility, jiaozi lost its function of circulation and thus lost its own value of existence (Li Linsha, 2001, 65).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.

Jiaozi facilitated the commercial turnover of Song Dynasty, bridged the economy of Sichuan with that of northwest China, and indirectly promoted the prosperity of trade between the Northern Song and western countries (Wang Baoping 2010, 50). The advent of jiaozi also facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation, which is a major achievement in the history of China's currency. In addition, as the earliest paper currency issued in China and even in the world, jiaozi occupies an important position in the history of printing and printmaking, and is of great significance to the study of China's ancient paper currency printing technology, as well as a contribution of China's financial industry to the world.--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

*Li Jiashou 李家寿. (1993). 中国最早纸币——“交子”产生的原因及其年代 [The Reason and Time of the Production of the Earliest Chinese Paper Currency —Jiaozi]. ''财经研究'' Journal of Finance and Economics (12) 55-57.

*Tuo Tuo 脱脱. (1985). ''宋史'' [The History of Song Dynasty]. Beijing: China Publishing House 中华书局.

*Peng Xinwei 彭信威. (1965). ''中国货币史'' [The History of Chinese Currency]. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House] 上海人民出版社.

*Dai Zhiqiang 戴志强. (2006). 有关北宋交子的几个问题 [Several Questions About Jiaozi of Northern Song Dynasty]. ''中国钱币'' China Numismatics (03) 43-46.

*Mu Zi 穆梓. (2006). 漫谈世界上最早的纸币——交子 [Talking About The World's Earliest Banknotes —Jiaozi]. ''中国品牌与防伪'' China Brand and Anti-counterfeiting (01) 78-79.

*Yang Wuneng, Qiu Peihuang 杨武能、邱沛篁. (1995).''成都大词典'' [The Great Dictionary of Chengdu]. Sichuan: Sichuan Lexicographical Publishing House 四川辞书出版社.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 交子的产生 [The Production of Jiaozi]. ''西南金融'' Southwest Finance (S1) 05-26.

*Jia Daquan 贾大泉. (1994). 张詠、薛田与交子──关于交子的产生时间、整顿和官交子务的建立 [Zhang Yong, Xue Tian And Jiaozi — On the Production, Reorganization of Jiaozi and the Establishment of the Official Jiaozi Affair Department]. ''四川文物'' Sichuan Cultural Relics (05) 58-61.

*Hong Pimo 洪丕漠. (1991). ''法苑谈往'' [Talking About Some Rules of Ancient China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Bookstore 上海书店.

*Li You 李攸. (1935). ''宋朝事实'' [Facts of The Song Dynasty]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

*Li Linsha 李琳莎. (2001). 论中国早期纸币的盛行及衰落——北宋交子在货币史上的短暂一现 [On the Prevalence and Decline of the Previous Paper Money in China —— the Flash of Jiaozi in the Northern Song Dynasty]. ''上海交通大学学报（哲学社会科学版）'' Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) (03) 65-68.

*Wang Baoping 王宝平. (2010). 论交子与宋朝商业繁荣 [On the Currency of Jiaozi and Commercial prosperity in Song Dynasty]. ''开封教育学院学报'' Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education (02) 47-50.

===Terms and Expressions===
{|border="1" cellspacing="0"

|-

|jiaozi||交子||Fei-qian||飞钱

|-

|contractual bonds||契券||the Ma Yin period of South Chu Kingdom||楚的马殷时期

|-

|Gui Fang||柜坊||Li Shun||李顺

|-

|jiaozi bank||交子铺||broussonetia papyrifera(paper mulberry)||楮树

|-

|private jiaozi||私交子||Xue Tian||薛田

|-

|Yizhou||益州||the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty||宋仁宗元年

|-

|Yizhou Jiaozi Affair Department||益州交子务||official jiaozi||官交子

|}

===Questions===

1.What is the earliest paper currency in the world?

2.Why did people in the Northern Song Dynasty give up using iron and copper coins as currency in circulation?

3.Which group of people firstly issued jiaozi?

4.When was jiaozi officially issued by the government?

5.What achievements did jiaozi make?

6.What other Chinese paper currency do you know?

===Answers===
1.Jiaozi.

2.Because the copper coin was in shortage and couldn't meet the demand in circulation, and iron coin was common in the Sichuan region at the time, and was of low value and heavy weight, making it extremely inconvenient to use.

3.Merchants.

4.In the first year of the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023).

5.The advent of jiaozi facilitated commercial exchanges and made up for the shortage of money in circulation.

6.Huizi(a paper currency in Southern Song Dynasty), the paper currency in Qing Dynasty, the paper currency in the Chinese Soviet Area Period and Renminbi.

--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 07:51, 11 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu

==Cosmetics, Traditional Chinese Make-Up - Zubareva, Ekaterina 201921080003 - Major - Comparative Literature and Cross-Cultural Studies==
--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 15:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===

Ancient China was the greatest power with a philosophy incomprehensible to our worldview. The culture of the East is strikingly different from that of the West. In China, it was customary for children to paint their cheeks with red paint in the form of an apple, so that the spirits, looking at the children, would be pleased, seeing that they were joyful and healthy. A fragile woman with a small foot was considered ideal. To do this, even in early childhood, girls wore tight shoes or tightly bandaged the foot so that it would stop growing.There are a lot of differences in types and ways of doing make up. [https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3]

[[File: makeup.jpg]]

Let's go back to Ancient China and talk about the history of cosmetics in China. Few people find it a secret that Chinese women have a yellowish skin color. To hide this "flaw", the women of ancient China used a powder made from rice starch. Such powder was abundantly sprinkled on the face, so many Chinese women had a snow-white face, and for contrast they painted their lips red, eyebrows shaded black. To apply blush, ancient Chinese women used vegetable broth, and the skin of the face was cleansed with milk and tea. At that time, Chinese women paid increased attention to nail care.

It is worth noting that many skin care products in Ancient China cost a lot, so only wealthy people or representatives of the nobility could afford such pleasure.

In our times, light types of makeup and a natural appearance are especially appreciated, while in the old days Chinese women preferred to abundantly apply a wide variety of paints to their faces, and the more paints were applied, the more beautiful a Chinese woman was considered. Accordingly, representatives of the nobility were considered the most beautiful, who had the opportunity to use the most exquisite and expensive recipes for personal care and makeup.

From childhood, Chinese women were taught the science of beauty: how to apply blush, mascara, whitewash, from an early age they were accustomed to the cosmetic etiquette of those times. For example, makeup had to be applied in such a way that the face appeared impassive, and the features did not have to be harsh and rough. By the way, if a Chinese woman bared her teeth while laughing, everyone considered her ill-mannered.[https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html]

Pale skin was and still is a sign of aristocracy in the East. Women literally put white on their face, their skin had to be snow-white, so they often went under umbrellas so as not to tan.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

====I.Base make up====

1.Lead powder

In Shang Dynasty, in order to make their skin look white and delicate, people applied lead powder to their faces, and it was the most common way of makeup at that time. “Sheng Nong’s herbal classic” also mentions that women did make up with lead and tin powder.The side effects of using lead powder were truly terrifying. Over time, the skin turned yellow, covered with wrinkles. Accordingly, more and more lead had to be applied each time.The lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin, which is why ancient poetry always laments that beauty is easily lost.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

2.Rice powder

In fact, as early as before the lead powder, people still have relatively safe base makeup products, the earliest use of rice powder is made by the rice.

“Qimin Yaoshu (齐民要术)” also records the method of making rice powder in detail.Rice powder is a unique cosmetic product that can slow down the aging process, protect the skin from the effects of an aggressive environment. A weightless film appears on the face, which prevents active chemical components and dirt from entering the pores. At the same time, the composition is saturated with antioxidants that do not allow the skin to fade quickly. The selection of rice is exquisite. The way it is made: It is grinded into a fine powder, then processed, soaked in cold water, fermented and rotted, then cleaned and drained, then exposed to the sun, and finally used for makeup. However, the adhesion of rice powder is not good, and it is easy to fall off once it moves, so it is quickly replaces by the lead powder.[https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html]

====II.Color make up====

If to compare to modern times, ancient Chinese make-up is not so that simple.We can devideit into three categories: blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

1.Blush

Blush also has a beautiful name in ancient times called Yanzhi (胭脂, rouge).Blush in ancient China was bright and rich (this contrasted with white skin), which showed the Almighty that they were healthy and happy.

Rouge also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic for coloring the cheeks in varying shades, or the lips red. It is applied as a powder or cream. It is a kind of cosmetics made from flowers named “Hong Lan” as the main raw material after being mixed. After the Huns were introduced into the Central Plains, the production of rouge was not only limited to plants, but also added with oil, animal bone marrow, etc. to make its texture more viscous, forming a state of lipstick to adapt to different needs. Since then, the use of rouge has become more abundant.

[[File: blush.jpg]]

2.Lipsctick

Lipstick is a popular aesthetic fashion product since the pre-Qin Dynasty. But in ancient times, it was called Chun Zhi (唇脂), or Kou Zhi (口脂). In ancient times, the color of lipstick was mostly red, which could make the color of lips more gorgeous, make people look better, more youthful and energetic. Therefore, it was deeply loved by ancient women. The painting methods of the female lip make-up in the past dynasties are different, but they can’t escape the similar aesthetics, that is, the smaller the lips, the better.Which is completely different from modern worldwide beauty standards.Diving into history helps us to see how such simples things change and the way that people's mindsets and tastes change as well.

[[File: lipstick.jpg]]

3.Eyebrows

It is believed that eyebrows can make or break a face—they're that important. Brows frame your eyes and add structure to your face after all.Eyebrows are a separate and one of the favorite parts of makeup. They had to be clear and black. The women shaved off their eyebrows and then dyed the eyebrows in a thin arc or made them straight. It was customary for warriors to dye their eyebrows in such a way as to give the image a more severe look.--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 11:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Eyebrow painting tradition began in the Warring States period, but the tools for eyebrow painting did not appear at that time. The beauty-loving women used burnt willow branches as eyebrow pens. Later, “Dai (黛)” appeared. It is a kind of mineral with a dark blue color. Before use, Dai must be put on the stone inkstone and ground into powder shape. Then, add water to mix.

In the Han Dynasty, it became more common and common to decorate the eyebrows, and it also derived a new aesthetic. The more women drew eyebrows, the better they looked. In a word, there were many ways to draw eyebrows in ancient times. It also means that the ancient people liked drawing eyebrows back then.

[[File: eyebrows.jpg]]

====III.Tang dynasty make up====

[[File: tangmakeup.jpg]]

1.Early Tang Dynasty

The Tang dynasty makeup style can almost be called the most versatile in the entire Chinese history.In both terms of national power and politics, the Tang dynasty almost reached the pinnacle of history, and because of this prosperity, the makeup of the women’s makeup in the people’s peace of environment constantly changed.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

With the transformation of the early Tang Dynasty, the flourishing Tang Dynasty, and the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the makeup was also making different changes, and for this reason, some special makeups were created, as we can see from the many ancient wall paintings and drawings.

In the early Tang Dynasty, influenced by the short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-617), the royal family did not pursue luxury and prefered simplicity. Therefore, women's make up was subtle and graceful, slightly coated with lead powder and with rouge simple make up.

*White make up

Since ancient times, people had standards of whiter the better, so women had to apply a lot of powder.The Tang Dynasty women’s powder and style were more diversed and prevalent. During the Zhenguan period, white makeup was popular among women, It probably was as popular as same as wearing BB creams and foundations in modern girls' make up.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

*Red make up

In order to highlight the contours of the face and make the face look redder, women would choose one or a few places to dye rouge on the forehead, eyelids, cheeks, and chin during the Zhenguan to Wuzhou period.

As a result, red makeup such as Huadian(花钿), Xiehong(斜红), Mianye(面靥), and other red makeup and accessories were diversified.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

2.Flourishing Tang Dynasty

After the Wuzhou period, the Tang Dynasty was at its peak, and there was closer communication between different ethnic groups, so women’s makeup also developed a new style. It was common for women to wear men’s clothing, without Weimao(帷帽)[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html] and put on a pretty make-up. However, the women’s pursuit of beauty in the Tang Dynasty did not stop there, their facial makeup also changed a lot. Women’s red makeup redder, face rouge, Huadian also more and more.

For example, the Jiuyun makeup (酒晕妆, jiǔ yùn zhuāng), like a woman after drinking wine, is the most intense of the red makeup; the next is the Feixia makeup (飞霞妆, fēi xiá zhuāng), which has a white touched with red feel; the lightest is the more girly Peach-blossom makeup, light and bright as a peach blossom.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

There were some alternative make ups as well, such as tear makeups(泪妆) and Ti makeups(啼妆, tí zhuāng), where rouge was used more and was spread all over the face.

3.Middle & Late Tang Dynasty

After the An Shi Rebellion (安史之乱), women’s makeup went through a peaceful transition period for decades, during which there were not many new styles and it became lighter.

In the mid to late Tang Dynasty, due to the impact of national and social unrest, women’s lives were no longer as unrestrained as they were during the peak of the Tang Dynasty, so their makeup also gradually changed.

However, the red makeup was still the mainstay, but women who liked to be different were more daring in the field of fashion and innovative makeup, but also absorbed more exotic elements, making a lot of makeup full of fantastic imagination, and even unbelievable.

The most prominent of the late Tang dynasty women’s distinctive make up was the Yuanhe period’s Shishi makeup (时世妆, shí shì zhuāng).[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

It is further exaggerated on the basis of the Ti makeup, the two cheeks painted redder, lips painted black, eyebrows painted as the end of the forked “Fen Shao eyebrows (分梢眉)”, or shaped like a spring silkworm out of a cocoon “Chu Jian eyebrows (出茧眉)”, the overall image is black eyebrows, face ochre, black lips.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

By the Changqing period, Shishi makeup was out of fashion. The woman’s black lips are no longer visible, but then another eye-opening makeup, Xie Yun makeup (血晕妆,xiě yùn zhuāng), began to prevail.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

A simple way to describe the Xieyun Makeup is that the woman shaves off all of her eyebrows and then draws three or four red or purple lines above and below her eyes to imitate the effect of being scratched, giving the impression of a bloodied wound.

4.Tang Dynasty Makeup – a reflection of the culture of the times

Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.[https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

Although the makeup of women in ancient times was aesthetically different compared to modern times, but behind every makeup, is the performance of Chinese cultural connotation, just with the flow of history, Tang Dynasty makeup has not been continued in life.

Overall, the boldness and innovation of Tang women in the pursuit of beauty and fashion have added an indelible chapter to the history of makeup and the Chinese culture.

====References====

*https://www.newhanfu.com/what-is-traditional-chinese-makeup-1.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://makiyazhglaz.com/vidy-makiyazha-glaz/istoriya-makiyazha-drevnyaya-indiya#7b3--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://legchina.livejournal.com/410.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 09:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*http://www.chinamodern.ru/?p=1763 --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/21/WS5ada295aa3105cdcf6519a30.html --[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 10:17, 7 December 2020 (UTC)

*齐民要术》作者：贾思勰--[[User:ZubarevaEkaterina|ZubarevaEkaterina]] ([[User talk:ZubarevaEkaterina|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

*Some Image Sources: Niki-镜子 & Vanessa_娜萨酱 [https://www.newhanfu.com/history-of-tang-dynasty-makeup-style.html]

====Terms and Expressions====

*齐民要术 - is the best-preserved ancient Chinese agricultural text and was written by an official of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Jia Six.

*胭脂 - rouge

*唇脂/口脂 - lipstick

*黛 - black eyebrow dye

====Questions====

1.What kind of powder did the women of ancient China use to have a snow-white face?

2.Why is lead powder dangerous?

3.What are 3 categories of Ancient Chinese make up?

4.What bacame more common in Han dynasty?

5.What are the types of Early Tang dynasty's make up?

6.Why is Tang dynasty make up a reflection of that time's culture?

====Answers====

1.Rice powder.

2.Lead is highly toxic and does great harm to the skin.

3.Three categories of Ancient Chinese make up : blush, eyebrows, lipstick.

4.Decorating eyebrows became more common.

5.White make up and Red make up.

6.Tang dynasty social and economic, political and cultural prosperity, open atmosphere, giving women unprecedented tolerance, women’s makeup with the historical timeline, from subtle grace to graceful and elegant, so that we can see the creativity of women and artistic charm.

History of Translation Studies 9

2020-12-21T02:23:29Z

Zhang Yinliu: /* On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649 */

这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。

学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。

*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].

='''Comparative Studies'''=

==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan
易欢 202020080663
(1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==
===Abstract===
The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.

(Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))

===Key words===
language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture

===摘要===
英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。

===关键词===
语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化

===1. Introduction===
The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)

Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.

（Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment.

(Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.

===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===

The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings.

===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===
When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking.

(Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.

(Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.

(Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.

(Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy.

Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:

(1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)
我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)

(2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）
Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)

From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue.

Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.

(Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===

It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)

(Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being.

(Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature.

(Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 )

(Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance:

( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能)
一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。

A good idea suddenly occur on me.
我突然想出了一个好主意。

The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers.

Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way.

(Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance:

(Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(1) 公交车来了。
There comes the bus.
(2) 我家有五口人。
There are 5 people in my family.

Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.

(Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===

Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain.

Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.

Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”.

Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.”

(Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.

Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

葡萄美酒夜光杯，
欲饮琵琶马上催。
— 王翰《凉州词》
With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,
Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.

无边落木萧萧下，
不尽长江滚滚来。
—杜甫《登高》
The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,
The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.

In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography:
“To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”

“为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则
是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。”
There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.

Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.
智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）

In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.

===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===

According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2).
Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis.

And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.

While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one.

(Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples:

(Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

(1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.
足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。

There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.

(2) 各位来宾，
女士们，先生们，朋友们：
Distinguished Guests,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Dear Friends,
在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！
With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.

Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.
诸位下午好。我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。

Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking.

Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.

===3. Conclusion===
The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.

( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.

( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

=== Bibliography===
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*Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.
*Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974.
*Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997.
*Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.
*Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.
* Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.
*Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.
*Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.
*Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.
*Zhang Li. 张黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.
*Zhang Sijie & Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.

==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==

===Abstract===

In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.

With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.

Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.

===Key words===

Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''

===摘要===

20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。

随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。

奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。

===关键词===

功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》

===Introduction===

Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His "Functional equivalence" theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).

Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====

Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180).

In 1964, Nida put forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of "dynamic equivalence" until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression "dynamic equivalence" was superseded by "functional equivalence" in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined "in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). "

Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.

In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did"(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).

====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====

Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):

"Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202)."

Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2).

According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. "Faithfulness" emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. "Expressiveness" stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. "Elegance" reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):

"Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)"

Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard "elegance". According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. "Elegance" now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard "elegance", the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).

===Theoretial Foundation===

====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====

=====Modern Linguistic=====

Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).

According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).

=====Information Theory=====

Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).

Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).

=====Social Semiotics=====

Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).

In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67).

====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====

=====Chinese Aesthetics=====

Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.

"Faithfulness" means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. "Expressiveness" means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. "Elegance" refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. "Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).

Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).

=====Literary Criticism=====

Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).

On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46).

There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).

===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===

====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====

=====About ''Vanity Fair''=====

''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).

At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).

This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).

The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).

=====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====

There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).

Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).

====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====

Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.

=====At Lexical Level=====

In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are

(1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on;

(2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on;

(3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on;

(4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on;

(5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on;

(6) links, such as when, during, below and so on;

(7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20).

From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16).

Exampe 1:

ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)

TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)

In ST1, "Love" and "Beauty" are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words "Love" and "Beauty" to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates "Love" and "Beauty" into "痴情男子" and "美貌佳人" to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate "Love" and "Beauty" into "爱情" and "美人", the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.

=====At Syntactical Level=====

A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:

(1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;

(2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;

(3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;

(4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;

(5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;

(6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;

(7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.

The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation.

Example 2:

ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.
(Thackeray 2016,75)

TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。
(Yang Bi 2013,76)

In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.

(1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。

His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.

(2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。

He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.

(3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。

She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade.

(4) 她死后，他许下承诺。

He was hanged after her death.

(5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。

He would never take another of her sort.

(6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。

At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.

(7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。

He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.

In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.

====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====

The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.

=====At Lexical level=====

Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.

Example 3:

ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)

TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)

In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words "an image of Love" and "Beauty" to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).

If the words "prettier", "an image of Love" and "Beauty" are translated into "更好看" "爱情形象" "美人" respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, "痴情男子" "美貌佳人" and "赏心悦目" reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).

=====At Sentence Level=====

English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.

Example 4:

ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)

TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)

In the original sentence, the abstract words "behavior" and "reception" are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into "克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……" without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.

====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====

===== Similarities =====

Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.

One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&Taber 1969, 22).

Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.

The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.

Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.

By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.

===== Differences =====

Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of "elegance". What’s more, the concrete explanation of "faithfulness" is not clear. Whether the target text should only be "faithful" to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard.

===Conclusion===

With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation.

From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures.

====Implements====

Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181).

What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.

====Limitations====

Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions.

===References===

Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.

Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.

Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.

Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986) ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press.

Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等[On Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"].''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.

Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.

Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.

Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"].''青年作家'' Young Writers(1)43-44.

Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.

Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言[Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.

Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》[''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.

Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.

Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.

Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on "Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance" and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House(2)180-181.

Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University(3)62-65.

--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==

===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' .

In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation

===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。

近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论

===Introduction===
The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）

The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）

As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）

In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===

''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)

Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.1 Lexical Level ====
For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)

For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)

The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====
As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)

As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)

The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 Syntactic Level====
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand.

In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)

In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations)
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure)
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability)

Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.

Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)

Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===

Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.

Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed

Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====
=====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection". The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）

Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.

By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.

From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006)

The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)

Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Cultural Dimension====
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.3 Communicative Dimension====
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.

Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.

Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood.
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)

Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Conclusion===

During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.

During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention

Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.

First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center>
===Abstract===
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way.

Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.

===Key words===
Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories

===题目===
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》

===摘要===
奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。

另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。

===关键词===

奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论

===1.Introduction===

====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).

By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).

His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).

====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20).

In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20).

If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).

===2.Similarities and Differences===

====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).

=====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====
Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40).

Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20).

Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).

=====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).

He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40).

The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93).

Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).

====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).

Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20).

By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22).

=====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)

Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)

Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).

In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49).

=====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).

In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43).

In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).

Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).

=====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38).

In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38).

By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2).

Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).

===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===

====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====

=====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132).

Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159).

=====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38).

What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42).

====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====

=====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====
Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).

====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166).

Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).

===4.Conclusion===
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).

===References===

Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.

Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.

Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.

Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.

Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.

Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.

Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.

Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science & Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.

--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==
<center>石海瑶 Shi Haiyao </center>

===Abstract===
The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.

===Key words===
Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis

===摘要===
一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。

===关键词===
谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析

===Introduction===

====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====

In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.

Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.

In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)

From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:

[[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]

====Yi Jing’s Translation System====
According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.

The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.

The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.

The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.

The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level.

The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).

From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:
[[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]

The translations of the above terms are as following:

[[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]

===Similarities and Differences===

====The Similarities between the Two systems====

=====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====

In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.

From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.

It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.

=====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====

In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.

For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).

Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.

=====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====
The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that "all translations must be faithful to the original text". Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as "faithful to the original content ", " faithful to the original form ", " faithful to the original effect ", " faithful to the original function" and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that "comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style" is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).

As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.
Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.

====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====

=====Different structures of translation system=====

From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.

Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.

=====Different views on the study of translation history=====

Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).

we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.

=====Different views on translation process=====

For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).

From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive.

===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===

====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====

=====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====

First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.

Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that "translatology is an independent discipline" is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.

Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of "harmony in diversity", which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.

=====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====

As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.

Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.

Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.

=====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====

The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.

====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====

=====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====
First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.
In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.

=====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====

However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.

Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.

Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.

=====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====

Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies.

===Conclusion===

This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.

===Refrences===

[1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.

[2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.

[3]蓝红军. "从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017)." 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.

[4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.

[5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.

[6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.

[7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.

==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==

胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060

==='''Abstract'''===
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.

==='''Key Words'''===
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence

===摘要===
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。

===关键词===
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值

===1.Introduction===
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.

In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc.

His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.

Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.

There are some similarities between Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Barnett's "cultural equivalence", but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the "similarities and differences" and "differences" between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.

===2.The background of the two translation theories===

Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics.

But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.

Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.

===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield.

Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.

Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of "Bible" translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).

===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.

According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.

===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===

===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".

3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"

"Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. "Mathematical equivalence" is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.

" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages.

The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.

3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.

3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.

As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.

To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that "reactions can never be the same," but that "a high degree of reaction equivalence" is required and possible; As for "functional equivalence", Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.

Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message.

He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).

3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.

（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)

“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)

If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.

(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)

“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)

The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).

(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)

“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)

"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.

===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===

According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.

3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.

Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.

3.2.2 Content and form of translation
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.

But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it.
Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.

3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation
Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the "intelligibility" of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.

3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.

3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples

原文:

“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)

辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"

韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )

"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.

原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)

辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )

韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )

Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.

===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===

Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)

But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.

===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.

Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.

Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).

===6. Conclusion===
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.

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--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==
<center> 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610</center>

===Abstract===

Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.

===Key words===

Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu

===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===
===摘要===

目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。

===关键词===

目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复

===1. Introduction===

Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248)

In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.

===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===

====2.1 Skopos Theory====

“Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.

=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====

The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.

(1) Katharina Reiss’s research

The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)

(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond

Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）

(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle

Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====

There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.

The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997)

Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition.

The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251)

These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.

====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====

Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）

Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）

=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====

(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”

The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago.

The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.

(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”

Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.

The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.

Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)

Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)

=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====

Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)

There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)

And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）

In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.

===3. Similiarities and Differences===

====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====

Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.

=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====

The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.

Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)

In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)

This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness", which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.

=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====

The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory.

In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32)

Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text.

At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.

=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====

The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent.

The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". Translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12)

While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.

====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====

Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

=====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====

Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed.

Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)

But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）

Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.

=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====

Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)

In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)

=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====

For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)

So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)

However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative.

As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .

===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===

Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.

====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====

When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242)

In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a "source of information", which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation.

More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.

Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu.

In particular, there are various new interpretations of "Elegance" in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)

====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====

Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996)

Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.

Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.

In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.

===5. Conclusion===

There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.

Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.

Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.

===Reference===

Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.

Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.

Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.

Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.

Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.

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--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==

<center>纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian </center>

===Abstract===

As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.

===Key words===

Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation

===题目===
性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究

===摘要===

张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。

===关键词===

张爱玲，性别，自译，他译

===1. Introduction===

Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and [[prose]] have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)1.proses

In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in [[that]] she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone [[has]] talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and [[looking through]] the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so [[much]] Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. 1.which 2.who has 3.looking back 4.many

She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, [[prose]] and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)1.proses 2. the translations will-the translations that will

Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue & Mu Lei 2010: 67)1. profoundly embodied-is profoundly embodied 2. an author or a translator--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===2. Gender and Translation===

Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) Feminist-feminism

During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)

As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity. when developed-when it developed

This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46) influence-influence that--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===

As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121).

In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).

Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)

Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.

====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====

In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)

ST：
（七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)

TT：
( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)

Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)

However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)

====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====

In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)

ST：
娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)

TT：
Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)

The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)

In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)

Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:

ST：
长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)

TT：
Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)

The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color.

Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)

====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====

In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.

ST：
（去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)

TT：
（Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)

The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)

Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)

Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)

===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===

''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang.

''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.

When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)

====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====

It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

ST：
“Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)

TT：
“再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)

Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.

====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====

As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)

To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:

ST:
It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)

TT:
男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15)

男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21)

活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16)

Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.

====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====

For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:

ST：
“But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)

TT：
“但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）

“可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）

“不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）

Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.

Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)

Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.

===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===

====5.1 Cultural Context====

Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)

The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.

For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)

For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)

====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====

As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.

And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)

Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)

===6. Conclusion===

Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective.

On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.

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Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].

Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.

='''Art of Translation'''=

==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==

桂一枝 202070080587

===Abstract===

Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti & Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.

Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as cross-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti & Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===Key Words===

Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman

===题目===

翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究

===摘要===

翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。

翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生进行跨文化行为，就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===关键词===

翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼

===1. Research Background===

Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.

Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the "cultural turn". (Luo 2009: 61)

From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the "cultural turn". (Luo, 2009 61)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the "cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.
It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)

With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the "cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.
It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym, 2001 129-138)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)
===2. Literature Review===

====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====

After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section.
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of "translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)

After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section.
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of "translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman, 1992 3)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication" and "resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)

Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication" and "resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti, 2004 page missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about "how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138).

As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about "how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances(Pym, 2001129-138).--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath" in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics". In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)

In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath" in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics". In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman, 2001 139-153)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====

With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". (Lu 2001: 272)

With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". (Lu, 2001 272)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.

Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. (quoteing missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)

With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun, 2007 14-18)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", "reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level".(Xu 1998: 49-54)

Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", "reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level".(Xu, 1998 49-54)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====

The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as "one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature" (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the "Nobel Literature Prize" in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing.

The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as "one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature" (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the "Nobel Literature Prize" in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called "Panda Books" to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.

There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called "Panda Books" to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.

Based on the previous studies, this thesis chooses these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===

Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.

Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139)

Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman, 2001139) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator", and the translator should be "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer".(Chesterman 2001: 140)

The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator", and the translator should be "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer".(Chesterman, 2001 140)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding".(Chesterman 2001: 141)

The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding".(Chesterman, 2001 141) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of "descriptive translation studies". Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like "the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations". That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)

Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of "descriptive translation studies". Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like "the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations". That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman, 2001 142)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)

The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman, 2001 147)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===

====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====

Ching & Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)

Ching & Payne's translation was published in ''The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching & Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching & Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)

Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching & Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching & Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang, 2019 92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====

Table1 comparison of places names in two versions

源语/金白译/戴译

四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan

辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow

桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan

沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan

白河/ White Stream/ White River

湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan

秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu

茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong

酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You

洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting

The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the "cultural communication space", not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching & Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her "patron". For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the "patron". Ching & Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the "patron" of the Ching & Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)

The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the "cultural communication space", not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching & Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her "patron". For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the "patron". Ching & Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the "patron" of the Ching & Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions

源语/ 金白译/ 戴译

油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses

桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil

唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet

糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba

纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman

上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor

蓬船/ Junk/ Craft

青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt

法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade

粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli

喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig

陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns

From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the "patron". In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching & Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)

From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the "patron". In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching & Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====

One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)

One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong, 1998 194)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

[Example 1]

[STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)

[TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)

[TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)

This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- "官路", "小山城"，"小溪", "白色", "小塔七", "单独的人家", "老人", "女孩子" and "黄狗", making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character "一". The character "一" embodies the "blue" aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)

In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character "一" in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven "a (an)" and one "the" to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates "单独" (的人家)into a "solitary" household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of "alone" and "lonely"，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)

Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of "单独"(的人家)into an "isolated" cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than "solitary" and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)

====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====

As Chesterman argues: "the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence". Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)

As Chesterman argues: "the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence". Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman, 2001 39-154)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)

From the perspective of linguistics, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang, 2012 34)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

Let's look at the following examples:

[Example 1]

[STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么，你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”
翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)

[TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. "Such language from a child!" he teased, chuckling, "you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!"
"Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!" (Gladys, 1981:26)

[TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: "So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you."

"Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!" the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)

Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)

Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===5. Conclusion===

After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.

After the theoretical study of translation ethics and practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.

This thesis focuses on the comparison of two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service & communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.

It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service & communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service & communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.

And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service & communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of "domestication" to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.

In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of "domestication" to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

===References===

Berman, A. 1992. The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany [M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Venuti, L. 2004. The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Pym, A. 2001. The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .

Chesterman, A. 2001. Proposal for a hieronymic oath [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .

Shen Congwen. 1982. The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen [M], trans. Ching Ti & R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.

Shen Congwen. 1981. The Border Town and Other Stories [M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.

骆贤凤（2009）。中西翻译伦理研究述评。《中国翻译》。3，13-17。

吕俊，2001,《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》Mo南京：东南大学出版社。

孙致礼（2007）。译者的职责。《中国翻译》，4, 14-18。

沈从文，1981,《边城》Mo南昌：江西人民出版社

向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究[J].语文学刊,2019,39(04):91-95.

童庆炳，1998,《文学理论教程》Mo北京：高等教育出版社。

王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究[D].南京师范大学,2012.

Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.

Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .

Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .

Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti & R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.

Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==

==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 ( 专业)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==
<center>刘欧 Liu Ou</center>

==='''Abstract'''===
With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.

With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (promote)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (enhance)the world's understanding of China.

==='''Key words'''===
English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (semicolon should be added.)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''摘要'''===
随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。

==='''关键词'''===
英语翻译湖南旅游景点文化翻译观

==='''Introduction'''===
Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)

Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(语法有错误。) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)

The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)

This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.

=== The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===
Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.

After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text.

In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located.

==== The Purpose of Translation ====
As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

====Translation Methods and Strategies====
As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

====Content and Form of Translation ====
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (时态要统一。)(efficient can be deleted)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====
Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)

====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====
As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)

===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===
There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation.

====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====
When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English.

However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:

Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.
For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)

Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.
Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归雁亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.

Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (第一句话语法有错误。)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归雁亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.

Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.

===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===
Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(举例较少，没有分析。)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.

According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(前半部分语法有错误)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.

==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)

The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(主谓不一致。)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)

==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ====
In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.

In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(最后一句话语法错误。)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)

1. Literal Translation
Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.

2. Free Translation
Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).

3.Transliteration + Literal Translation
The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, "南岳庙" (Nanyue Temple), "洞庭湖" (Dongting Lake), "岳麓山"(Yuelu Mountain),"崀山" (Langshan Mountain), "湘江"(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.

4.Transliteration + Explanation
The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,"柳浪闻莺"liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), "鬼见愁"gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing "吊脚楼", if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)

Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is "Zhu Rong peak", Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.

=== Conclusion ===
Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective.

As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad.

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==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632==

==='''Abstract'''===

Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)

Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)

Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)

Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

==='''Key Words'''===

Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions

==='''摘要'''===

译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)

本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。

==='''关键词'''===

陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本

===Introduction===

The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.

The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)

Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)

Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====

Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)

Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====

In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization.

Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.

Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)

In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====

To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)

To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====

Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)

Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===

Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary.

====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====

Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.

Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.

Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====

A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.

The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem.

A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===

Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.

Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====

Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.

Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman.

“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。

三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。

满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？

梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）

This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:

1. I seek but seek in vain,

I search but search again.

I feel so sad, so drear,

So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)

2. So dim, so dark.

So dense, so dull,

So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)

3. Seeking,seeking,

Chilly and quite,

Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）

4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,

So chill, so clear,

dreary,

and dismal,

and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)

5. Seeking

seeking

Searching

searching

over and over

lonely and forlorn

Sighing;

grieving

sighing

In the same round (Kwock&McHugh)

6. Seek…seek, search....search;

Lone...lone, cold...cold;

Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji)

Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.

Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.

For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:

1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles

As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)

2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,

In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)

3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be

A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)

4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.

The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)

5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)

6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)

No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.

No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Translation of Verbs====

Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.
Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:

“薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，
有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”

This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:

1. What with curtains being folded—
by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)

2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)

3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)

4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)

5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)

In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.

In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

“三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.

1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,
How can I endure at dusk the drift
Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）

2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.
To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)

3.How can a few cups of thin wine,
Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)

4.Three or two cups of light wine,
How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)

Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.

Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====

Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.

Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:

Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness
Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）

2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.
Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)

3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)

Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.

Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)
Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”

1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------
The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)

2.Oh, what can I do with a grief
Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)

3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”?
(Lin Yutang)

4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)

The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.

The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====

Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.

Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====

This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.

1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman

The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:

1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.

But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie)

2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:

My old friends,

Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)

3. It breaks my heart, alas,

To see the wild geese pass,

For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)

4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;

But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&Gladys Yang)

5. Overhead,a heart-rending line

South-bound wild geese at morn

Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)

After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.

After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.

Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

====4.2 Natural Images====

Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.

The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:

1. As compared with chrysanthemums,

I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)

2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)

3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)

4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)

Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)

Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

=====Conclusion====

Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)

Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)

The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

===Reference===

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* Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.

* Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.

* Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.

* Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.

* Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.

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* 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.

*房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.

* 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.

*胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.

* 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.

* 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).

* 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.

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* 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.

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*张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.

==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==

===Abstract===

Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.

===Key Words===
interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics

===摘要===
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

摘要:
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。

===关键词===
口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Introduction===

The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）

The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)

===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===

Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993）

Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, "For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used." Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)

====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====

Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)

Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)

For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)

====Cultural barriers caused from values====

Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）

A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.

====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====

Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval".“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word "龙" means something evil in the West, but "auspicious" in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase "望子成龙" should never be translated as “to hope one"'s child can become a dragon"，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）

====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====

Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give "New Year's Lucky money" to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but "Chinese New Year" does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays.

Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father" is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket". It means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket", but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as "与父亲睡觉", which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）

Look at the following example:
If this sentence is understood as
"约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏", it is because the translator failed to understand " eats no fish " and "play the game". After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So "" means "loyalty" and " to eat no fish " means "loyalty" and " to play the game "means "race",The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is "John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright".

====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====

The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）

The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.
Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.

Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===

Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation.

Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of "accuracy, smoothness and speed" and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as "on-site, present and limited time", the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the "nearest natural equivalence" between English and Chinese, and to try to find the "nearest natural equivalence" from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the "nearest natural equivalents" between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:

====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====

Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the "nearest natural equivalent" to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions "三个和尚没水吃" into " Everyone‘s business is no one"s business." is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)

However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌" by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）

Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）

====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====

The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a "purpose-oriented" approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

=====Direct translation method=====

Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, " Let sleeping dogs lie" is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.

=====Substitution Method=====
The substitution method is also called the "reciprocity method". It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom "冰冻三尺非一日之寒" is translated into " Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom "to spend money like water " translated into "挥金如土" is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)

====Intentional translation method=====

When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)

For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ". This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ".

This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
=====Interpretation=====

Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)

1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture
诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.
Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事

2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere
三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure
and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.
An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。

3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism
解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”

4)Special cultural words

敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.
the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。

=====Simple translation and no translation=====

Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use "no translation" or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: "我姓张，弓长张。"Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)

===Conclusion===

Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements.

Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)

===Reference===

简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期

连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版

刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期

熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8

杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期

张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期

Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.

Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.

Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.

Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.

Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.

Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.

Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==

===Abstract===

With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style.
The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.

===Key Words===

Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.

===中文摘要===

随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。
本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。

===关键词===

翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.

===Introduction===

Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies.

However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.

===Theoretical Framework===
====Background and development of Texts’ styles====

According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.

We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.

Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)

====Main functions of texts====

=====The Referential Function=====
The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.

=====The Expressive Function=====

The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.

=====The Appellative Function=====

The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.

====Main Text - types====

Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text.
Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively.

=====The Expressive Texts=====

Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc.

===== The Informative Texts=====

In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc.

===== The Vocative Texts=====

People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.

===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics===

With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel.

====Language Characteristics====

=====For literary style=====
======Vividness======
In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as "trump", "usher" and "is borne", the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.

======Emotional expression======
As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.

======Connotation======
Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized "State" can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.

===== For journalistic style=====
Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.

======Truthfulness======
First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)

======Newness======
If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.

======Objectivity======
The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.

======Political Relevance======
Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.

====Translation principles====
Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.

===== For literary style=====
Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.

======Equivalence-based principle======
Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.

======Accuracy-based principle======
No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.

=====For Journalistic style=====
Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.

======Purpose-based principle======
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.”

As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.

======Accuracy-based principle======
The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.

======Readability-based principle======
Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics.

===Translation strategies===
Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.

====Translation strategies in literary style====
In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation.

===== Domestication=====
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness,
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.

======paraphrasing======

Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.

Example1

ST: 如囊萤如映雪家虽贫学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)

TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied
unceasingly.

TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning.
Annotation: in order to read by their light.

TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly.

The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.

======Adaptation======

In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.

Example2

ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)

TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)

Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way.

Example3

ST: 凡训蒙须讲究详训诂明句读（Wang Yinglin,1986）

TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences.

TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation.

TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period.
There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.

======Replacement======

Example 4

ST:勤有功戏无益戒之哉宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)

TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength.

This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.

=====Foreignization=====

Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)

======phonetic compensation======

Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose.

Example5

ST:养不教父之过教不严师之惰

TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness.

Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text.

======Transliteration======

Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms.

Example6

ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46)

TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)

TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)

======Amplification======

Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers.

Example 7

ST:论语者二十篇群弟子记善言

TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings.

In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius.

==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====

===== Amplification=====

Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point.

Example 8

ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250)

TT:谁是真正的邦德?

There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text.

Example 9

ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225)

TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74

“比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning.

Example 10
ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15)

TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队

“评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader.

=====Omission=====

Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness.

Example11
ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005)
TT: 适当少睡有益健康
As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example.

Example12

ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07)

TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜

As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜.

=====Imitation=====
English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.

Example 13

ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).

TT:双心记

This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.

Example14

ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200)

TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢

This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.

=====Restructure=====
The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese.

Example 15

ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube

TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)

“A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics.

Example16

ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials

TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)

In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense.

Example 17

ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches

TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)

The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.

===== Adaptation=====
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more
attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc.

Example 18

ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind

TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)

“Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable.

Example 19

ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey

TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43)

“Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved.

Example 20

ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’

TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。

If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.

===Conclusion===
The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.

===References===

[1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.

[2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.

[3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.

[4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.

[5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.

[6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London & New York: Routledge,1995.

[7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.

[8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.

[9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.

[10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.

[11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.

[12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.

[13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm

[14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm

[15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm

[16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm

[17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm
--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==

<center>李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614</center>

===Abstract===

Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible.

Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===Key words===

Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology

===摘要===

意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。

===关键词===

批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态

===1. Introduction===

===1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology===
The meaning of ideology is multiple. As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, ''Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.''

The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, "Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion."--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

''Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is "a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view" (Kress & Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as "something neutral" that refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that "these implicit beliefs constitute "common sense" and provide the normative basis for discourse"'' (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).

"Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view" (Kress & Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as "something neutral"which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that "these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse" (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

''However, according to Fairclough, ideology is "the result of power relations and power struggles" that are "implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware"'' (Fairclough , 1989: 2).
However, according to Fairclough, "ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles " that are "implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware" (Fairclough , 1989: 2). --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chenhui

''Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) broadens the definition of ideology, which includes three main elements, namely society, cognition and discourse. Among that, society refers to power relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology, but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects and hides or constructs ideology.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

"Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of "ideology", which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

''Rhetorically, ideology realizes its natural status via the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)

"Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

''In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. “Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article’s ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).”'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)

"In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. "Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

''Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through such fiction, ideology can naturally form and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. “The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence’s effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).” From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)

"Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies===

===1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies===

''In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the “Cultural Turn” of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules), contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..'' (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)

"In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the "Cultural Turn" of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics
rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

''In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of “Translation is a rewriting” (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated “Two Key Elements” influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).'' (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)

"In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15)." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

''Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization. (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)

"Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization." (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

''Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)

"Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&Bassnett, 1998: 25-40)."(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression===

Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year’s tasks, which can intensively reflect the government’s priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China’s situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.

Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

=== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application===

''Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines’ research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.'' (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)

"Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights." (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, proving the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.

CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

''In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects:
the First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media’s role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.

In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries & Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.

Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton's assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries & Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair's period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media's discourse practice on the North Korea's image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media's context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after "9·11", reflecting the changes in attitude.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)

Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports. (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?

This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions:
1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text?
2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident:
1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS?
2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way? --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===

=== 2.1 Classification===

''According to the CDA, for the variations of "categories" in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the "categories" in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of "categories", and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

"According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

Example (1): The same one Chinese character "发展" in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that "发展" can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.

For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.

When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet
b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions
c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment

For example, when used as a noun:
a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

In the three examples of the verb, promote means "to advance", while support means "to back up and give aid to". In these two examples, both “promote” and “support the growth” signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that "support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative to provide assistance". In the second example, in "develop private R&D institutions", the word “develop” is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.'

In the three examples of the verb, "promote" means "to advance", while "support" means "to back up and give aid to". In these two examples, both "promote" and "support the growth" signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that "support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative "to provide assistance". In the second example, in "develop private R&D institutions", the word "develop" is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

(2) ''In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.

Example (2) "In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.
For example, "四风" in the source is translated as "formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance"."四风" is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

However, the translation technique for "四风" is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.
The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.

However, the translation technique for "四风" is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

(3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word "统一" in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as "reunification" in English. As we all know, the Chinese character "统一" means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix "re-" is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, "re-" means "again" and the word “unification” with a prefix "re-" means "back to the previous country". Thus, the Chinese character "统一" here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of "re-" implies a different ideological meaning.

Example(3) The English version of "促进祖国和平统一": The word "统一" in "促进统一"（2020年） is translated as "reunification" in English. As we all know, the Chinese character "统一" means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix "re-" is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, "re-" means "again" and the word “unification” with a prefix "re-" means "back to the previous country". Thus, the Chinese character "统一" here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of "re-" implies a different ideological meaning. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an "independent country," a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so "reunification" is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.

For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an "independent country", a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so "reunification" is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

(4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”
The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as "rural and non-working urban residents "
And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”
“农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”.
Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.

Example(4)"提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准" is translated as "We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents."The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as "rural and non-working urban residents "And "将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障" is translated as "We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living.""农民工" is translated as “rural migrant workers". Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

A critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.

Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

=== 2.2 Mode===

===2.2.1 Modal verbs===

''Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing "mood", modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.
In English modal verbs, such as "can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to", imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer.

"Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing "mood", modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as "can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to", imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须".
Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including "能、可以、会、可能、得、敢、肯、愿意、情愿、乐意、想、要、应、应该、应当、该、值得、配、别、甭、好、一定、得、必须".Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.
B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together
C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,
D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.
E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.
F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.
G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.
H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth.
I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.

As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb “must” to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.
The use of “must” in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.

As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb "must" to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.The use of "must" in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb “should”. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.
The translation of Example C uses the modal verb “will”, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.

As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb "should". It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.The translation of Example C uses the modal verb "will", which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

Example E employs the modal verbs “should” and “may” in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.

Example E employs the modal verbs "should" and "may" in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.
Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.

Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in I, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject “we” and the modal verb “need to” are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.

Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in "I", the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject "we" and the modal verb "need to" are added to the question, and the modal verb here also
expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.

The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are pretty close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.

However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators have to chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===2.2.2 Personal pronouns===

''The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader.

"The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader."--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)

"From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey." (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

（1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：
A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan
B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions.

（2）Added Personal Pronouns：
A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,
B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan.
C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.
D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage.
E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.

According to statistics, there are 308 “we” in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns “we” are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns I, all of us, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in other cases.

According to statistics, there are 308 "we" in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns "we" are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns "I", all of "us", etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

''Under most circumstances, “we” is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of “we” is more authoritative than I. This usage is called "loyal we".'' (A Study of the Ideology of the <Government Work Report> under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself "authoritative". The "we" in the translation also naturally reflects "authority" correspondingly.

"Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'."(A Study of the Ideology of the <Government Work Report> under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself "authoritative". The "we" in the translation also naturally reflects "authority" correspondingly. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of “we” also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of “we” instead of "Chinese government" or "so-and-so department" is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, “we” is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.

Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of "we" also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of "we" instead of "Chinese government" or "so-and-so department" is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, "we" is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

=== 2.3 Conversion===

''Traditionally, "transformation" refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of "transformation" should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose"'' (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on "transformation"". Therefore, "transformation" can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of "transformation" between the source language and the translated one.

"Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose." (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on "transformation". Therefore, "transformation" can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of "transformation" between the source language and the translated one.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

In the analysis of "transformation" in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear.

In the analysis of "transformation" in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995). This lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.

Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

For example:
===2.3.1 Nominalization===

A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.
B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession,
C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.
D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government.

It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.
For example, in A), "upgrade" is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.

It can be shown from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.
For example, in A), "upgrade" is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

In B), "Affected by the global epidemic" was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.

In B), "Affected by the global epidemic" was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is much higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

C) The key word in the original text can be "risk accumulation", but because the adverbial term "finance and other fields" is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern "There be" is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as " The whole sentence of "increasing risks" is highlighted.

C) The key word in the original text can be "risk accumulation", but due to the adverbial term "finance and other fields" is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern "There be" is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as The whole sentence of "increasing risks" is highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

D) The full expression of the original text should be "In the government work, there are deficiencies." The implied meaning is "I should improve and upgrade the government work." The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as " "room for improvement" is also used in the sentence pattern "There be", and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.

D) The full expression of the original text can be "In the government work, there are deficiencies." The implied meaning is "I should improve and upgrade the government work." The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as "room for improvement" is also used in the sentence pattern "There be", and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.

It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into consideration the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===2.3.2 Active to passive===

A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.
B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.
C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.
D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.
E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.
F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.

In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of "active expression passive" sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.

In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter. In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of "active expression passive" sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===3.Conclusion===

From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,

From the veiw of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

(1) in terms of classification,
a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.
b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.
c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the "reunification of the motherland" on the Taiwan issue is translated as "reunification" because China wants to convey to the world the principle that "the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair."

(1) In terms of classification,
a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.
b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.
c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the "reunification of the motherland" on the Taiwan issue is translated as "reunification" because China wants to convey to the world the principle that "the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair."--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

(2) In terms of modal
a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.
b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun "we". It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.

(2) In terms of modal
a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements, soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.
b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun "we". It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, While God is also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

(3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.

(3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious.
First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology.
Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology;
but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.

In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report reflects China's own ideology. The reasons are also obvious.
First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology.
Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology;
but the translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===4.Limitations===

===4.1 Insufficient data support===

In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.

In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020.
Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

I envisaged to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can get a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.

The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.

However, since it is necessery to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, and to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then it is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===4.2 Insufficient theoretical support===

The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.
Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.

The author does not have a profound understanding on critical discourse analysis, nor does she expound the Introduction clearly. Her knowledge of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.
Second, the author's understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui

===5.Bibliography===

[1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月
[2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月
[3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月
[4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的<政府工作报告>意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月
[5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期
[6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期
[7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期
[8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年
[9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期
[10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月
--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)

==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==

<center>聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628</center>

===Abstract===

English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.

English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan

===Key words===

English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”

English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan

===摘要===

英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。

===关键词===

英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”

===1. Introduction===

Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation.

===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===

“Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays. He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” (Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70)

This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.

===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===

A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326).

The inflected forms in modern English include mainly conjugation and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:

Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。
Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).

The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration.

Due to the difference between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible.

There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.

Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”.

Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业” who performs the action “写”. That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.

English language, with the subject given priority in a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.

Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)
If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)

There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.

Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)
If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)

There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.

Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences.

Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)
Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)

It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候” is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.

Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)
This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)

In this example, “这种死亡” serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦” as well as “别人看了心里也很难受” serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.

Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113).

Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.

English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .

As a result, English sentences are closely related with each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure.

Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)
It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)

The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.

Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)
It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.

Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)
Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)

There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.

Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)
Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)

The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.

Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.

Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context.

Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words.

There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.

Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)
Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)

“范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:
... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...
It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.

Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.

English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.

In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.

Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)
Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.

Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)
Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)

Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.

Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)
The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)

The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.

Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)

Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223).

Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)
Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)

The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.

Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)
As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)

The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation.

In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.

English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts.

Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.

Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation.

Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)
Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)

Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it.

Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)
At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)

Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.

Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)
Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)

The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.

Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)
The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)

Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.

Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.

===4.Conclusion===

This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved.

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